Pg 190- 194

Question Answer

1. What is a A population in ecological terms refers to a group of individuals of the same

population in species that live in a well-defined geographical area, share or compete for
ecological terms? similar resources, and can potentially interbreed.

2. How does the concept A population has attributes such as birth rates, death rates, sex ratio,
of population differ from and age structure, while an individual organism does not. Populations
that of an individual are subject to ecological processes like natural selection and evolution,
organism? whereas an individual organism adapts to environmental changes.

Population density refers to the number of individuals per unit area or

3. Define population
volume. It can be measured by counting the total number of individuals (e.g.,
density and how it
in a small area), or by using indirect measures like percent cover, biomass, or
can be measured.
relative density, especially in cases where direct counting is not feasible.

An age pyramid is a graphical representation of the age distribution of

4. What is an age
individuals in a population. The shape of the pyramid reflects the growth
pyramid? How does it
status of the population: a broad base suggests a growing population, a
reflect the growth status
rectangular shape indicates stability, and a narrow base suggests a
of a population?
declining population.

The four basic processes that influence population density are: (1)
5. What are the four basic
Natality (birth rate), (2) Mortality (death rate), (3) Immigration
processes that influence
(movement into the habitat), and (4) Emigration (movement out of
population density?
the habitat).

The equation is:

Nt+1 = Nt + [(B + I) – (D +
E)]
Where:
Nt = population density at
6. Write the equation representing the change in population density time t
(Nt+1) over time and explain each term. Nt+1 = population density
at time t+1
B = number of births
I = number of immigrants
D = number of deaths
E = number of emigrants.

7. Explain exponential growth in Exponential growth occurs when resources are unlimited
populations with an equation and give and the population grows at a constant rate. The equation
an example. for exponential growth is:
dN/dt = rN
Where:
N = population size
r = intrinsic rate of natural increase
dN/dt = rate of change in population size. Example: The
 growth of bacteria in a nutrient-rich environment follows an
exponential growth pattern.

Birth rates and death rates are considered per capita (per individual)
8. Why are birth rates and
to standardize measurements across populations of varying sizes and
death rates considered per
to understand the contribution of each individual to the overall
capita in population ecology?
population change.

Immigration increases population density by adding individuals from

9. How do immigration and
other areas, while emigration decreases population density by
emigration contribute to the
removing individuals from the population. Both processes impact the
change in population
overall size and growth of the population, especially when births and
density?
deaths are stable.

10. What is the Studying population growth models helps predict how a population will
significance of studying grow under different environmental conditions, and it allows scientists to
population growth understand the limiting factors that affect population size, such as
models? resource availability, predation, and competition.

Exponential growth occurs when a population grows without any

11. Compare and
limitations, resulting in a J-shaped curve. In contrast, logistic growth occurs
contrast exponential
when a population growth rate slows as resources become limited, resulting
growth and logistic
in an S-shaped curve. Logistic growth accounts for carrying capacity, where
growth.
the population size stabilizes.

The age distribution influences the population's future growth by

12. How does the age
determining the proportion of individuals who are reproductively active. A
distribution of a
higher proportion of young individuals suggests a growing population,
population affect its
while a larger proportion of older individuals may indicate a declining
future growth?
population.

13. What is the role of the The intrinsic rate of natural increase (r) indicates the potential rate
intrinsic rate of natural of population growth under ideal conditions (unlimited resources). A
increase (r) in population higher r value suggests faster growth, whereas a lower r value
dynamics? indicates slower population growth.

Environmental factors like food availability and space influence the

14. Analyze how
carrying capacity of a habitat, determining how many individuals
environmental factors like
can be supported. Predation pressure can lower population density
food, space, and predation
by increasing mortality rates, while competition for resources can
affect population density.
also limit growth.

To estimate population density in a large area, indirect

15. How would you apply the concept
methods like mark-recapture, using traps, or estimating
of population density to estimate the
percent cover and biomass can be applied. For example, a
number of a species in a large,
tiger population can be estimated by tracking pug marks and
inaccessible area like a forest?
fecal pellets.

16. Discuss the impact of Human activities, such as habitat destruction, pollution, and over-
human activities on the exploitation, can reduce resources and increase mortality rates, leading
population dynamics of to declines in populations. Conversely, human conservation efforts like
 protected areas and wildlife corridors can help stabilize or increase
other species.
populations.

Relative density is useful when it is impractical to count all

17. What are the advantages of
individuals in a population, such as in dense or widespread
using relative density as a
populations. It allows ecologists to estimate population trends
measure of population size in
based on indices like the number of individuals caught per trap or
certain ecological studies?
observed in sample plots.

The carrying capacity is the maximum number of individuals an

18. How does the carrying
ecosystem can sustainably support based on available resources.
capacity of an ecosystem
When a population approaches this limit, growth slows and
influence population growth?
stabilizes, resulting in logistic growth.

19. Explain how an age pyramid An age pyramid with a broad base indicates a high birth rate and a
can help in understanding the healthy, growing population. A narrow base or high proportions of
reproductive health of a older individuals may suggest lower reproductive rates, indicating
population. potential challenges in the population's sustainability.

20. What are the potential Exponential growth can lead to resource depletion, overcrowding,
ecological consequences of and increased competition. If unchecked, it may cause
exponential growth in a environmental degradation, a sharp decline in population size due
population? to resource exhaustion, or catastrophic impacts on the ecosystem.

Pg 195- 202

Question
Question Answer
Type

The minister asked for a bet where one grain of wheat is

What is the procedure for placed on the first square of the chessboard, two grains on
Factual the wheat grains bet the second, four on the third, and so on, doubling the
described in the anecdote? number of grains on each subsequent square until all 64
squares are filled.

Exponential growth refers to a situation where the number

What is exponential growth
of individuals in a population doubles in each time period,
as demonstrated in the
Factual leading to a rapid increase. In the anecdote, the wheat
anecdote about the wheat
grains doubled each time, which leads to a very large
grains on the chessboard?
number by the 64th square.

Logistic growth occurs when population growth slows as

What is the logistic growth the population size reaches a habitat’s carrying capacity
Factual model and how does it differ (K). Unlike exponential growth, where resources are
from exponential growth? unlimited, logistic growth considers limited resources,
leading to a plateau or asymptote at the carrying capacity.

Analytical Why is the logistic growth The logistic growth model is more realistic because it
model more realistic than considers limited resources, which are a natural constraint
the exponential growth on population growth. It accounts for competition and the
Question
Question Answer
Type

carrying capacity of an environment, which are crucial

model?
factors in maintaining ecological balance.

The carrying capacity refers to the maximum population

How does the concept of size an environment can sustain. In the context of human
‘carrying capacity’ (K) apply population, carrying capacity can be influenced by factors
Analytical
to human population such as food, water, and living space, as well as
growth? government policies aimed at limiting growth through
family planning and resource management.

Under exponential growth, a single Paramecium could

If a tiny Paramecium grows potentially reach an astronomical population size in 64
exponentially, how might days, making it unsustainable. The rapid growth would
Difficult
this result affect its likely result in overcrowding, depletion of resources, and
Subjective
population in 64 days under competition for survival. Despite unlimited space and food,
unlimited resources? the population would eventually face other limiting
factors.

Fitness refers to an organism's ability to survive and

How might the idea of
reproduce in its environment, which directly relates to
‘fitness’ as described in the
Difficult Darwin’s theory of natural selection. Organisms that are
life history variation section
Subjective more adapted to their environment are more likely to
relate to Darwin’s theory of
survive and pass on their traits to the next generation,
evolution?
leading to evolution over time.

A specialist has a narrow ecological niche and typically

What is the difference produces fewer offspring, while a generalist has a broad
between a specialist and a ecological niche and may produce a larger number of
Factual
generalist in terms of offspring. Specialization often leads to higher efficiency in
reproductive strategies? a particular environment, but generalists have greater
flexibility in adapting to changing conditions.

Interspecific competition can limit the resources available

to different species, leading to reduced growth or even
How does interspecific
extinction of the less competitive species. It can also result
Analytical competition affect
in resource partitioning, where species adapt to use
population dynamics?
resources at different times or in different ways, promoting
coexistence.

Predation helps regulate prey populations, preventing

them from reaching unsustainable densities, which can
In what ways can predation
Difficult cause ecosystem instability. Predators can also maintain
influence ecosystem
Subjective species diversity by controlling the populations of
stability?
dominant species, allowing less competitive species to
thrive.

Analytical Why do some organisms The strategy depends on environmental conditions.

Question
Question Answer
Type

Species with many small offspring (r-strategists) often

evolve to produce a large thrive in unstable or unpredictable environments where
number of small offspring survival chances are low. In contrast, species with fewer,
while others produce fewer, larger offspring (K-strategists) invest more in each
larger offspring? offspring's survival, suited for stable environments with
limited resources.

The Competitive Exclusion Principle states that two species

What is the Competitive competing for the same resources cannot coexist
Factual
Exclusion Principle? indefinitely if their niches are identical. One species will
outcompete the other and eventually lead to its extinction.

Parasitism benefits the parasite at the expense of the host,

How does parasitism
often reducing the host's fitness. Most parasites harm
influence both the host and
their hosts because natural selection favors traits that
Analytical the parasite, and why do
increase a parasite's ability to reproduce and spread.
most parasites harm their
However, some parasites may evolve to be less harmful to
hosts?
ensure the host survives long enough for reproduction.

Do you think it would be It may not be advantageous for a parasite to be harmless

evolutionarily advantageous because the parasite's reproductive success depends on
Difficult
for a parasite to evolve to be exploiting the host's resources. A harmless parasite would
Subjective
harmless to its host? Why or be less successful in reproducing, as it would not obtain
why not? the necessary resources for its survival and reproduction.

Ectoparasites live on the external surface of the host, such

as lice or ticks, while endoparasites live inside the host’s
How do ectoparasites and
Factual body, such as the liver fluke or malaria parasite.
endoparasites differ?
Endoparasites typically have more complex life cycles and
highly specialized adaptations for surviving within the host.

A mosquito is not considered a true parasite because it

does not rely exclusively on its host for its life cycle. While
Why is the mosquito not
Difficult it feeds on blood for reproductive purposes, it does not
considered a true parasite
Subjective live inside or harm the host in the same way as traditional
despite feeding on blood?
parasites do. True parasites usually depend on the host for
long-term survival and reproduction.

In mutualistic relationships, both species benefit from the

Explain how mutualistic interaction, which can lead to co-evolution. For example,
relationships, like those plants may evolve specific flower shapes or scents to
Analytical between plants and attract certain pollinators, while pollinators evolve traits
pollinators, can lead to co- that help them collect pollen or nectar more efficiently.
evolution. This leads to a tight evolutionary link between the two
species.
SUMMARY

Question Answer

Ecology is primarily concerned with the relationships between living

What is the primary focus of
organisms and their environment, focusing on both biotic (other
the study of ecology?
species) and abiotic (physico-chemical factors) components.

What are the four levels of

The four levels are: organisms, populations, communities, and
biological organization in
biomes.
ecology?

Population ecology is important because evolutionary changes

Why is population ecology
through natural selection occur at the population level, which directly
considered important?
affects the survival and adaptation of species.

Define population in the A population refers to a group of individuals of the same species that
context of ecology. share or compete for similar resources in a defined geographical area.

What are the key attributes Key attributes include birth rates, death rates, sex ratio, and age
of a population? distribution.

An age pyramid is a graphical representation of the proportion of

What is an age pyramid, and
different age groups (males and females) in a population. Its shape
how is it useful?
indicates whether a population is growing, stationary, or declining.

Population size (density) is influenced by birth rates, death rates,

What factors influence
immigration, and emigration. It can be expressed in numbers,
population size (density)?
biomass, or percent cover, depending on the species.

What are the two primary

factors that cause a Populations grow due to births and immigration, and decline due to
population to grow or deaths and emigration.
decline?

Exponential growth occurs when resources are unlimited, leading to

Explain the difference
rapid population increase. Logistic growth occurs when resources
between exponential and
become limiting, leading to a slowed population growth that levels off
logistic growth.
near the environment's carrying capacity.

What is carrying capacity, Carrying capacity refers to the maximum number of individuals an
and how does it limit environment can support. When a population reaches this capacity,
population growth? growth is limited due to resource constraints.

The intrinsic rate of natural increase (r) measures the potential rate at
Define intrinsic rate of
which a population can grow under ideal, unlimited resource
natural increase (r).
conditions.

What is meant by the term

Competition refers to an interaction between two species where both
"competition" in ecological
suffer due to the competition for the same resources.
interactions?

How does predation Predation is crucial for controlling prey populations and facilitating
Question Answer

contribute to the ecological

trophic energy transfer, helping maintain ecological balance.
balance?

What are the different types

The different interactions are competition, predation, parasitism,
of ecological interactions
commensalism, amensalism, and mutualism.
between species?

The Competitive Exclusion Principle states that two species competing

What is the Competitive
for the same resources cannot coexist indefinitely; the superior
Exclusion Principle?
competitor will eventually eliminate the inferior one.

How do closely related Closely related species have evolved various mechanisms (such as
species manage to coexist resource partitioning or niche differentiation) that allow them to
despite competition? coexist by utilizing resources in different ways or at different times.

Mutualism is an interaction where both species benefit. An example is

Explain mutualism and
the relationship between plants and pollinators, where plants receive
provide an example.
pollination, and pollinators receive nectar.

How do plants defend

Plants have evolved diverse morphological (e.g., thorns) and chemical
themselves against
(e.g., toxins) defenses to protect themselves from herbivores.
herbivory?

Parasitism involves one species benefiting at the expense of another.

Discuss the role of parasitism
Parasites rely on their hosts for survival, often harming the host in the
in ecological interactions.
process.

How does predation affect Predation can regulate prey populations by controlling their numbers,
prey populations? preventing overpopulation, and maintaining ecosystem stability.

Why is the study of ecology Ecology provides insight into how organisms interact with their
crucial in understanding environment and with each other, helping to understand the natural
evolutionary processes? selection processes that drive evolutionary changes.

Analytical and Subjective Questions

Question Answer

A growing population would have a broad base, indicating a

How would the shape of an age
high birth rate. A stationary population would have a more
pyramid differ for a growing, stationary,
uniform shape, while a declining population would have a
and declining population?
narrower base, indicating lower birth rates.

Human activities like deforestation, pollution, and

Discuss how human activities can alter
urbanization can reduce the carrying capacity of an
the carrying capacity of an
environment by depleting natural resources, disrupting
environment.
ecosystems, and introducing pollutants.

Why is it difficult for populations to In nature, factors like limited resources, predation, disease,
Question Answer

and competition prevent populations from growing

grow exponentially in nature, despite
exponentially. These factors ultimately impose limitations
the potential for rapid growth?
on population size.

Mutualism can lead to co-evolution, where species adapt

How do ecological interactions like together to benefit each other. Competition, on the other
mutualism and competition influence hand, may drive species to evolve strategies to outcompete
the evolutionary strategies of species? others for resources, leading to niche differentiation or
resource partitioning.

What are some real-world examples of An example is the introduction of the grey squirrel in the
species that have been affected by the UK, which outcompeted the native red squirrel, leading to a
Competitive Exclusion Principle? decline in the red squirrel population.

Key variables would include predator density, prey

If you were to design an experiment to
population size, and food availability. The expected
study the effects of predation on a prey
outcome would be a reduction in prey population size as
population, what would be your key
predator density increases, demonstrating the impact of
variables and expected outcomes?
predation on prey populations.

In what ways can human-induced Human-induced changes like habitat destruction, pollution,
changes in ecosystems lead to and climate change can disrupt mutualistic relationships
imbalances in ecological interactions (e.g., between pollinators and plants) or increase parasitism
like mutualism and parasitism? by creating favorable conditions for certain parasites.

Resource partitioning allows species to use resources in

How does the concept of resource
different ways, times, or locations, reducing direct
partitioning help species avoid
competition and enabling coexistence, thus avoiding
competitive exclusion?
competitive exclusion.

Invasive species can disrupt local ecosystems by

Analyze the ecological impact of
outcompeting native species for resources, introducing
invasive species on local populations
diseases, or altering habitat structures, often leading to a
and ecosystems.
decrease in biodiversity.

EXCERCISES

Exercise Detailed Answer

Populations possess attributes such as birth rates, death rates, sex ratio,
1. List the attributes that
and age distribution. These are collective measures for a group of
populations possess but
organisms, unlike individuals who have no inherent population-level
not individuals.
characteristics like these.

2. If a population growing The intrinsic rate of increase (r) can be found using the exponential
exponentially doubles in size growth formula: Nt=N0ertN_t = N_0 e^{rt}Nt=N0ert. If the
 population doubles in 3 years, 2N0=N0er×32N_0 = N_0 e^{r \times
3}2N0=N0er×3. Simplifying: 2=e3r2 = e^{3r}2=e3r, taking the natural
in 3 years, what is the intrinsic
logarithm on both sides: ln⁡(2)=3r\ln(2) = 3rln(2)=3r, so
rate of increase (r) of the
r=ln⁡(2)3≈0.231r = \frac{\ln(2)}{3} \approx 0.231r=3ln(2)≈0.231.
population?
Therefore, the intrinsic rate of increase (r) is approximately 0.231 per
year.

Important defense mechanisms in plants include morphological

3. Name important
defenses (e.g., thorns, spines, tough leaves) and chemical defenses (e.g.,
defense mechanisms in
toxins, alkaloids, terpenoids). These mechanisms help reduce herbivory
plants against herbivory.
by deterring or poisoning herbivores.

4. An orchid plant is growing on the This interaction is an example of epiphytism, which is a

branch of a mango tree. How do you type of commensalism. The orchid benefits by gaining
describe this interaction between the access to sunlight while the mango tree is unaffected. The
orchid and the mango tree? orchid does not harm the mango tree.

5. What is the ecological The ecological principle behind biological control involves using
principle behind the natural predators, parasites, or pathogens to control pest populations.
biological control method of This method reduces the pest population without harmful chemical
managing pest insects? inputs, relying on ecological interactions like predation or parasitism.

A population refers to a group of individuals of the same species living in a

6. Define
specific geographical area and interacting with each other. A community is a
population and
group of populations of different species living in the same area and interacting
community.
with each other.

(a) Commensalism: One species benefits while

the other is unaffected. Example: Remoras (fish)
attaching to sharks.
(b) Parasitism: One species benefits at the
expense of the other. Example: Ticks on
mammals.
7. Define the following terms and give one (c) Camouflage: The ability of an organism to
example for each: (a) Commensalism (b) blend in with its environment. Example: A
Parasitism (c) Camouflage (d) Mutualism (e) chameleon changing color.
Interspecific competition (d) Mutualism: Both species benefit from the
interaction. Example: Pollination between bees
and flowers.
(e) Interspecific competition: Competition
between different species for the same
resources. Example: Lions and hyenas
competing for prey.

8. With the help of a In a logistic growth curve, the population grows rapidly at first when
suitable diagram, resources are abundant, then the growth rate slows as resources become
describe the logistic limited. It levels off near the carrying capacity (K), the maximum number of
population growth individuals the environment can support. The curve starts with an
curve. exponential growth phase, transitions into a slowing phase, and then
 reaches a stable equilibrium.

9. Select the statement (d) One organism is benefited, other is affected. This is the best
which explains best description of parasitism, where one species benefits (the parasite) at
parasitism. the expense of the host, which is harmed.

(a) Birth rate: The number of births in a population over a

specific time period. A high birth rate leads to population
growth.
10. List any three important (b) Death rate: The number of deaths in a population over a
characteristics of a population and specific time period. A high death rate leads to population
explain. decline.
(c) Sex ratio: The proportion of males to females in a
population. An unbalanced sex ratio can impact reproduction
rates and the population's ability to grow.