The Interior of Stars

Stellar Structure
Stellar interiors are optically thick.
How do we approach building models of stellar interiors?!
Common Observations of the Sun
Sun has maintained its
● Size
● Energy it emits every second
● Surface temperature

all this while (Well, almost!)

• Sun is a self-gravitating object − each part of the sun
exerts force on each other part of the sun.

• Gravity always attracts

There must be other kinds of forces acting against Gravity to prevent the
sun from collapsing onto itself.

These inward and outward forces must be in perfect balance!

Hydrostatic Equilibrium
• Sun is radiating the same amount of energy every
second − 3 x 1026 Joule

It must be generating the right amount of energy every second.

Energy Generation Rate

It must be making sure that each of its layer transports just the right
amount of energy to maintain this energy output.

Energy Transport Rate

 Since the transfer of fixed (energy) radiation from the center to the surface
in each layer would depend crucially on how temperature in each layer
varies, it must maintain the required temperature gradient in all layers.

Temperature Gradient

• Mass and Energy conservation

Stellar Structure Equations

Hydrostatic Equilibrium

Mass Conservation

Energy Transport
Hydrostatic Equilibrium
Ex. 10.1.1 Make a crude estimate of the pressure at the center of
the Sun using the Hydrostatic Equilibrium.

Rigorous calculation shows the pressure is

Pressure Equation of State
For main-sequence stars, it is the gas pressure and the radiation
pressure that contributes to the equilibrium.

For a star composed of pure

Hydrogen gas,
𝜇N = 1; 𝜇i = 0.5
For a star whose mass fractions are X, Y, and Z X: Fractional mass of H
0.70
𝜇N = 1.30; 𝜇i = 0.62 Y: Fractional mass of He
0.28
Z: Fractional mass of metals
In terms of mass fractions, for a neutral gas 0.02

In terms of mass fractions, for a completely ionized gas

Discussion on P. 293
Radiation Pressure

a = 7.5 x 10-16 J m-3 K-4

Total Pressure in normal

main-sequence stars
 Ex. 10.1.2 Make an estimate of the temperature at the center of
the Sun using the Gas pressure term alone and using the value for
pressure we derived in the previous example.

Rigorous calculation shows the

temperature is
For Sun, the estimated radiation pressure at the center
is 1.5 X 1013 N/m2 – mere 0.065% of gas pressure.
Stellar Energy Sources & Time Scales
Each energy source gives us an estimate of how long a star
can survive if that energy source was the only source
available to star.

These timescales have relevance in understanding the

evolutionary stages of stars.
Gravitational Energy and Kelvin-Helmholtz Timescale
The gravitational potential energy of a spherical star of
radius R and mass M,
For the Sun, U ~ 2.2 X 1041 Joules

Assuming solar luminosity, L☉ ~ 3.8 X 1026 Joules, this will

last 107 years.

Kelvin-Helmholtz (Thermal) time scale ~ 107 years

Too short! From dating of meteorites we know that our solar system is
about 4.5 billion year old.
Nuclear Energy and Nuclear Time Scale
Assuming that star is composed entirely of Hydrogen, and
that inner 10% of the stellar region (core) participates in
Hydrogen fusion, we estimate the total nuclear energy a
star can produce.
Total Mass of four (4) Hydrogen nucleii

Mass of one Helium nucleus

Ex. 10.3.2 Assuming Sun was all Hydrogen, and that inner 10% of
mass is hot enough to convert Hydrogen into Helium, how long Sun
can produce its current luminosity?

Energy ~ 1.26 X 1044 Joules

Assuming solar luminosity, L☉ ~ 3.8 X 1026 Joules, this will last

~ 1010 year

Reasonable!

Nuclear time scale ~ 1010 years

Feasibility of Hydrogen fusion inside stellar cores

Fundamental Forces
A proton experiences repulsive Coulomb force and attractive
nuclear force due to another proton.
Electric potential energy
between two protons at r

Relative velocity of two

Reduced mass of two
particles
particles
 For protons, Z1=Z2=1.

r = 1 fermi = 10-15 m

Our estimated temperature at the center of the Sun, 10 7 K, imply that the
nuclear fusion between two protons cannot occur even in the center of the
Sun (stars)!
 Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

Assume that if two protons can come within 1

de Broglie wavelength, they can fuse.
Electric potential energy
between two protons at λ

Non-relativistic KE in terms
of λ
Quantum tunneling suggests Sun (stars) can fuse Hydrogen nuclei into
helium nuclei and generate energy.
Gamow Peak - Reaction Rate of Nuclear Processes
Reaction rates between target particles (x) and incident
particles (i) depend on several parameters:

1. Number of incident particles in a given energy interval

2. The height of Coulomb potential
3. The cross-section of the target particle
Gamow Peak - Reaction Rate of Nuclear Processes
Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution of energies (velocities) for protons (H
nucleii)
Tunneling more probable if the Coulomb potential is

smaller and if proton energy is higher,

Reaction Rate
Reaction rate per unit volume in power-law (two particle interaction)

r0 is a constant, Xi and Xx are mass fractions of incident and target

nuclei, α´ and β are determined from reaction rates.

Energy liberated per kilogram of material per second,

ε0 is the energy liberated per reaction.

In the form of power-law,

α = α’-1. By summing εix for all reactions occurring inside stars, we

find the total energy generation rate. It has units of W kg-1.

For any nuclear reaction, the reaction rate and hence the
energy generated will have a power-law dependence on
temperature. These power law indices β will have a crucial
relevance on stellar evolution.
Second Stellar Structure Equation
 Third Stellar Structure Equation

Where ϵ is the energy released per Kg per second

by all nuclear reactions and gravity.
Third Stellar Structure Equation

Luminosity produced in the shell,

dLr
= ϵ X mass of the shell
Stellar Nucleosynthesis

Conservation Laws for Nuclear Reactions

What all need to be conserved?

Charge, total number of leptons, total nucleons

❏ Leptons – light particles such as electrons, positrons,

neutrino (matter, anti-matter conserved separately)
❏ nucleons- protons + neutrons
Nuclei will be represented by , where Z is the number of protons,
A is the number of nucleons, and X is the chemical symbol of the
element.
Proton-Proton chain

0.42 MeV
PP
I 5.49 MeV

12.859 MeV

e- e+ annihilation : 1.02
Totally 26.7 MeV! MeV

PP PP
II III
T6 = T/106 K.
Written in power-law form near T = 1.5 X 107 K

For PP chain, there is temperature dependence of fourth power of T,

centered around 15 million K.
The CNO cycle
For CNO chain, there is temperature dependence of nineteenth power of T,
centered around 15 million K.

Stars with masses less than 1.3 M☉, P-P chain is dominant.
Figure Source:
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Introduction_to_Astrophysics/Main_Sequence_Stars
This single fact − the disparate temperature dependence
of the two nuclear reaction chains − leads to pretty much
EVERY difference in the evolution of a low-mass star
versus massive star!
Triple Alpha Process - Helium Burning

Written as a power-law centered around T

= 108 K
Carbon and Oxygen Burning
Hydrogen fuses into Helium, Helium into Carbon,
Carbon into Oxygen, Oxygen into Neon..
How far can the star go on fusing and generate energy?
Fe is the last nucleus that can be
produced by nuclear fusion.

For Fe to fuse with

another lighter element
to make a heavier
element, energy will be
required not released.
Compared to main-sequence
(Hydrogen burning) duration of a
star’s life, the other evolutionary
states are fleeting.

Credit: Astro-Edu
Energy Transport Mechanisms
Radiation, Convection, Conduction
Radiation -
Photons carry the energy. Opacity of the material is an
important consideration.

Convection -
Involves physical motion of gases. Hot buoyant masses rise,
cooler gases sink.

Conduction -
Heat transfer by collision between particles. Insignificant in
main-sequence stars.
Fourth Stellar Structure Equation - Radiative Temperature Gradient
Condition for Convection
Let’s say something displaces a blob
of gas inside a star (the gas inside
the star is in Hydrostatic
equilibrium)

If the blob “falls back” -> No convection

If the blob “rises” -> Convection

Is the blob lighter than its surrounding?

Blob has new P, T, and ⍴, in its
surroundings.

Timescale of P adjusting -> 𝜏dyn

Timescale of T adjusting -> 𝜏KH

HW: Calculate these two time-scales for

Sun.
 𝜏dyn ~ 1000 s

𝜏KH ~ 1015 s

The blob comes to equilibrium in pressure much faster

than it comes to equilibrium in temperature.

We can safely assume the blob expands adiabatically

(hardly any, if at all, energy is lost (change in T) in the
process of blob expansion and arrival to new pressure).
Is the blob lighter than its surrounding?

This is the condition for stability.

(Both P and T decreases with r)

This is the condition for stability.

Convection occurs when the medium is unstable...It is a kind of
dynamical instability.

Convection is an efficient process. As soon as the temperature

gradient becomes equal to RHS, it sets in. That is why this
expression with equality is our fifth equation of stellar
structure.
Stellar Structure Equations

Hydrostatic
Equilibrium
Mass
Conservation
Energy
Transport
Constitutive Relations
Boundary Conditions
https://wps.pearsoned.com/aw_carroll_ostlie_astro_2e/48/12319/3153834.cw/index.html
1 M☉ Star
1 M☉ Star
1 M☉ Star
 Stellar Mass-Luminosity Relation
Comparison of Numerical Model and Dimensional Analysis (DA)

Model
s

DA

Figure: 3.2 A. Choudhuri (2010)

 Stellar Mass-Luminosity Relation
Based on Observational Data of Binary stars

A linear fit gives a slope of ~ 3.7 (not too different from 3)!
 Stellar Luminosity-Effective Temperature Relation
Comparison of Numerical Model and Dimensional Analysis (DA)

Solid: Model
Dashed : DA
 Stellar Luminosity-Effective Temperature Relation
Based on Observational Data of Nearby stars

Figure: 3.6 A. Choudhuri (2010)

A linear fit gives a slope of ~ 5.6 (not too different from 6)!
Dimensional analysis gives us a fair idea of the various
correlations among stellar parameters.

Mass is the fundamental property of a star. Every property

of a star including it’s lifetime and end state, depends on
its mass.
Mass is the fundamental property of stars.
Can stars be of any mass?
Limits on stellar masses

There is a lower as well as upper limit on the

stellar mass. The two limits are there for two
different reasons.
 Lower Limit on a Stellar Mass

This limit is due to the minimum temperatures

required in the cores for nuclear fusion.

~ 0.072 Mʘ below which it cannot fuse Hydrogen.

 Upper Limit on a Stellar Mass

This limit arises out of the failure of the star to be in

Hydrostatic equilibrium in the outer layers.

~ 90 Mʘ above which it can hardly stay bound.

Eddington Luminosity

Eddington luminosity is the

greatest luminosity a star can
have and radiate without losing
its mass, without breaking
apart.
Radiative
Transfer Eq.