Chapter-2

ELECTROSTATICS
Electrostatics
The charges at rest produces static electric field around it which will not vary
with respect to time.
The field is time invariant and is called as static electric field.
The study of such time invariant electric field in a space or vacuum is called as
electrostatics.
The two fundamental laws that govern electrostatics are coulomb’s law and
Gauss Law
 Coulomb’s Law

Coulomb’s law is an experimental law formulated in 1785 by the French

army engineer, Charles Augustin de Coulomb.

Coulomb’s law deals with the force, exerted by a point charge on another
point charge.

Point charge means a charge that is located on a body whose dimensions

are much smaller.
 Statement of Coulomb’s Law

Coulombs law states that the force of attraction or repulsion between any
two point charges is directly proportional to product of magnitude of two
point charges and inversely proportional to square of the distance of
separation between two point charges.

The direction of force will be along the line joining between two point
charges.
Coulomb’s Law
Let Q1 and Q2 be two point charges separated a distance R apart then the force F is given by.
𝑄1 𝑄2
𝐹𝛼 𝑅2

𝑄1 𝑄2
𝐹= 𝑘 𝑅2
-------- (1)
Coulomb’s Law
Where k is the proportionality constant .In SI units , charges 𝑄1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄2 are in
coulombs(C),the distance R in meters (m) and the force F is in newton's(N) .
1
𝑘= , where 𝜀 is known as the permittivity (in farads per meter).
4𝜋𝜀
𝜀 = 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 where 𝜀𝑟 is the relative permittivity.
In free space 𝜀𝑟 = 1.
−12 10−9 𝐹
𝜀0 = 8.854 𝑋 10 =
36𝜋 𝑚
1
So k = = 9 𝑋109 𝑚/𝐹
4𝜋𝜀0
Then equation (1) becomes
𝑄1 𝑄2
𝐹=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 2
Coulomb’s Law In vector form
If two point charges Q1 and Q2 are located at points having position vectors r1 and r2, then the
force F12 is the force acting on on Q2 due to Q1 is given by
 Coulomb’s Law Problems

1. A charge Q1 = -20 μ C is located at M(-6 , 4 6) and another charge Q2 = 50μ C is

located at N(5, 8, -2) in vacuum. Find the vector force exerted on Q1 by Q2. [F21]

2. A point charge Q1 = 300 µC is located at (1, -1, -3)m experiences a force

F12 = 8 ax – 8 ay + 4 az to charge Q2 which is located at (3, -3, -2)m. Determine Q2.
 Coulomb’s Law Problems
3. A charge Q1 = 3 x 10-4 C is located at M(1 , 2, 3) and another charge Q2 = -10-4 C is
located at N(2, 0, 5) in vacuum. Find the vector force exerted on Q2 by Q1.

4. A charge QA = -20mC is located at A(-6, 4, 7) and a charge QB = 50 mC is at B(5, 8, -2) in

free space. If the distances are given in meters, find (a) RAB (b) |RAB| (c) Determine the vector
force exerted on QA by QB if 𝜀0 = 10-9 / 36 pF / m.

Ans : (a) 11ax + 4ay -9az m; (b) 14.76 m

(c) 30.76ax + 11.184 ay -25.16 az mN

 Coulomb’s Law Problems in Non-Vector form

5. A thunder cloud above the earth sets up a electric field of 50 V/m. In this field there is a rain drop carrying
the charge of 0.3µC, what is the force on the rain drop?

6. Calculate the force of attraction between Q1 = 4X10-8 C and Q2 = 6X10-5 C and spaced by 10 cm apart in
vacuum. What is the force if it is placed in kerosene whose 𝜀𝑟 = 2.

7. Two alpha particles are separated by a distance of 1mm and each are having a charge of 3.2 x 10-9 C.
Determine the force of repulsion between them.
 Coulomb’s Law Problems in Non-Vector form

8. Calculate the force of attraction between Q1 = 4X10-8 C and Q2 = 6X10-5 C and spaced by

10 cm apart in vacuum. What is the force if it is placed in kerosene whose 𝜀𝑟 = 2.

9. Two alpha particles are separated by a distance of 1mm and each are having a charge of

3.2 x 10-9 C. Determine the force of repulsion between them.

 Electric Field
➢The field or space around a charge particle where its force can be experienced by any
other charged particle is called the electric field of former charge.
➢Electric field is also known as electrostatic field intensity.
➢The electric field from a positive charge points away from the charge
➢The electric field from a negative charge points toward the charge.
 Electric Field Intensity
Electric field intensity at any point in electric field is defined as the force experienced
by unit charge placed at that point.

Electric field intensity due to a point charge:

The Electric Field intensity at a point ‘R’ due to a point charge Q is given by
 Problems on Electric Field concept
1. Find the electric field intensity at the point A(2,4,5) m due to a point charge
Q= 2 x 10−5 C ,located at B(0,1,2)m in free space.

2. Find the electric field intensity at the point P(2,4,5)m due to a point charges of

Q1= 2 x 10−6 C ,located at M(0,1,2)m and Q2= 4 x 10−6 C, located at N(0,1,2)m in

free space.

3. Calculate the electric field intensity at a distance of 0.20 m from a charge of 2µC
in vacuum?
Types of charge distribution
There are 4 types of charge distribution Namely
1. Point charge distribution
2. Line charge distribution
3. Surface charge distribution
4. Volume charge distribution
Types of charge distribution
1. Line Charge Density (𝝆𝑳)

When the charge is uniformly distributed over the length of a conductor, it is called linear charge
distribution. Its unit is C/m.
𝝆𝑳 =Total charge/Total length. measured in (c/m)
2. Surface Charge Density (𝝆𝑺)

When the charge is uniformly distributed over the surface of the conductor, it is called Surface
Charge Density or Surface Charge Distribution. Its unit is C/m2.
𝝆𝑺=Total charge /Total Surface area. measured in (C/m2)
Types of charge distribution
3. Volume Charge Distribution (𝝆𝑽 )
When the charge is distributed over a volume of the conductor, it is
called Volume Charge Distribution. It is denoted by symbol 𝝆𝑽 (rho). In other
words, charge per unit volume is called Volume Charge Density and Its unit is
C/m3.

𝝆𝑽 =Total charge /Total volume. measured in (C/m3)

Types of charge distribution
The charge element dQ and the total charge Q due to these charge distributions
are obtained as follows.
➢ 𝑑𝑄 = 𝝆𝑳 𝒅𝒍 → 𝑸 = ‫𝒍𝒅 𝑳𝝆 ׬‬ Linear charge
➢ 𝑑𝑄 = 𝝆𝑺 𝒅𝑺 → 𝑸 = ‫ 𝑺𝒅 𝑺𝝆 ׬‬Surface charge
➢ 𝑑𝑄 = 𝝆𝑽 𝒅𝑽 → 𝑸 = ‫ 𝑽𝒅 𝑽𝝆 ׬‬Volume Charge
Types of charge distribution
So the electric field intensities due to these types of charge distribution are:

𝝆 𝒅𝒍
➢𝐸 = ‫𝑳 ׬‬ 2 𝑎𝑅 Line charge
4𝜋𝜀 0𝑅
𝝆 𝒅𝑺
➢𝐸 = ‫𝑺 ׬‬ 2 𝑎𝑅 Surface charge
4𝜋𝜀 0𝑅
𝝆 𝒅𝑽
➢𝐸 = ‫𝑽 ׬‬ 2 𝑎𝑅 volume charge
4𝜋𝜀 0𝑅
Electric Flux

➢ The electric field around a charge can be Visualized in terms of electric field
lines or electric flux lines.

➢ The total number of lines of force in any particular electric field is called the
electric flux.

➢ It is represented by the symbol 𝜓. Unit of electric flux is also coulomb (C).

➢ The flux is a scalar field.

 Properties electric flux lines

1. The flux lines start from positive charge and terminate on negative charge.

2. If the electric field is stronger, there will be more number of lines.

3. The electric field lines are parallel and never cross each other.

4. The electric field lines are independent of the medium in which charges are
placed.
5. If the charge on a body is ± 𝑄 coulombs, then the total number of lines
originating or terminating on it, is also Q. But the total number of lines is nothing
but flux. Therefore electric flux  = Q coulombs (numerically).
 ELECTRIC FLUX DENSITY (D)

➢ Electric flux density at any point in electric field is defined as number of electric field or flux lines
passing normally through unit area.
D= flux/Area (C/m2)

➢ Consider an inner sphere of radius a and an outer sphere of radius b, with charges of Q and -Q,
respectively as shown in figure below.

➢ The paths of electric flux extending from the inner sphere to the outer sphere are indicated by
the symmetrically distributed streamlines drawn radially from one sphere to the other
ELECTRIC FLUX DENSITY (D)
 ELECTRIC FLUX DENSITY (D)
➢ At the surface of the inner sphere, 𝜓 coulombs of electric flux are produced by
the charge Q = (𝜓) coulombs distributed uniformly over a surface having an area of
4πa2 (m2 ).
➢ The density of the flux at this surface is ( 𝜓 /4πa2 ) or
Q/4πa2 (C/m2 ).

➢ Electric flux density, measured in coulombs per square meter (sometimes

described as “lines per square meter,'' because each line is due to one coulomb), is
represented by the letter D, because it is also called ‘displacement flux density’.
ELECTRIC FLUX DENSITY (D)
Referring again to above figure, the electric flux density is in the radial direction
and has a value of
𝑄
𝐷= 𝑎𝑟 (inner sphere)
4𝜋𝑎 2
𝑄
𝐷= 𝑎𝑟 (outer sphere) at a radial distance of r where 𝑎 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 𝑏
4𝜋𝑏 2
we know that
𝑄
𝐸= 2
𝑎𝑅
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅
So 𝐷 = 𝜀0 𝐸 for free space. &
𝐷 = 𝜀𝐸 in other medium.
Problems on Electric Flux Density
1. What is the electric flux density and electric field intensity at a distance of
20 cms due to an isolated point charge of 20 x 10-12 C.

2. A point charge Q = 30 nC is located at the origin in Cartesian coordinates.

ഥ at (1, 3, -4).
Find 𝐷
Gauss Law
The electric flux passing through any closed surface is equal to the total charge enclosed by that
surface.
𝑖. 𝑒 𝜓 = ර 𝐷𝑆 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 = 𝑄

The charge may be a point charge, line charge, surface charge or volume charge.
𝜓 = ර 𝐷𝑆 𝑑𝑆 = න 𝜌𝑉 𝑑𝑣
Divergence
The divergence of the vector flux density D is the outflow of flux from a small closed surface per
unit volume as the volume shrinks to zero. The divergence of a vector field is a scalar.

‫𝐷 ׯ‬. 𝑑𝑆 𝑄
𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐷 = 𝛻. 𝐷 = lim = lim = 𝜌𝑉
∆𝑣→0 ∆𝑣 ∆𝑣→0 ∆𝑣
So 𝛻. 𝐷 = 𝜌𝑉
➢ This is known as the Maxwell’s First equation. Also called as point form of Gauss Law.

➢ If 𝛻. 𝐷 = 0 ,then the field D is said to be a solenoidal.

Divergence theorem

The integral of the normal component of any vector field over a closed surface is equal to the
integral of the divergence of this vector field throughout the volume enclosed by the closed
surface.

 D.dS = 
s
v
𝜌𝑉 𝑑𝑉 =  ∇. 𝐷 𝑑𝑣
s
Problems
1. Find div D at the origin if D = e-x sin(y) ax – e-x cos (y) ay + 2z az

2. Find a numerical value for div D at the point specified by:

D = (2xyz – y2) ax + (x2z – 2xy) ay + x2y az (C/m2) at PA (2, 3, -1)

3. Determine the divergence of the vector field 𝑃 = 𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑥𝑧 𝑎𝑧

Problems
4. Find divergence and curl of the vector field given by
F = 2xy ax + x2 z ay + z3 az

5. Find whether the given vector field is irrotational and solenoidal.

yz ax +zx ay + xy az
Electric Potential
➢ The electric field intensity defined as the force on a unit test charge at that
point.
➢ Moving the test charge against the electric field, a force equal and opposite to
the field is exerted, and this requires expending energy or do some work.
➢ Moving the charge in the direction of the field, the energy expenditure turns
out to be negative,
➢ In the above case, we do not do the work, the field does.
➢Suppose to move a point charge Q from point A to point B in an electric field E
as shown in Figure below
Electric Potential
Electric Potential
➢From Coulomb's law, the force on Q is FE = Q .E
➢The differential work done by an external source moving charge Q is given by
dW = −QE · dL
➢The negative sign indicates that the work is being done by an external agent.
➢Thus the total work done, or the potential energy required, in moving Q from A to B is

𝐴
𝑊 = −𝑄 ‫𝐸 𝐵׬‬. 𝑑𝐿
Electric Potential
Dividing W by Q in above equation gives the potential energy per unit charge.

It is denoted by VAB, known as the potential difference between points A and B.

𝑊 𝐴
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = = − ‫𝐸 𝐵׬‬. 𝑑𝐿
𝑄
Electric Potential
➢ In determining VAB, B is the initial point while A is the final point.
➢If VAB is negative, there is a loss in potential energy in moving Q from A to B;
this implies that the work is being done by the field.
➢However, if VAB is positive, there is a gain in potential energy in the movement;
an external agent performs the work.
➢VAB is independent of the path taken.
➢VAB is measured in joules per coulomb, commonly referred to as volts (V).
Potential due to point charge
If the E field is due to a point charge Q located at the origin, then

𝑄
𝐸= 𝑎
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 𝑟
𝑟𝐴
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = − න 𝐸. 𝑑𝐿
𝑟𝐵
𝑟𝐴
𝑄 𝑄 1 1
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = − න 𝑎 . 𝑑𝑟 𝑎𝑟 = − −
𝑟𝐵 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟𝐴 𝑟𝐵

𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵
Potential due to point charge

➢ Where VB and VA are the potentials (or absolute potentials) at B and A,

respectively.

➢ Thus the potential difference VAB may be regarded as the potential at B with
reference to A.

➢ The Potential at any point is the potential difference between that point and a
chosen point at which the potential is zero.
Relationship between E and V
𝐴
From the way we defined potential, V =− ‫𝐸 𝐵׬‬. 𝑑𝐿.
It follows that dV = -E dl= - Ex dx - Ey dy - Ez dz

V V V
dV = dx + dy + dz
x y z

Comparing the two expressions for dV, we obtain

𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝐸𝑥 = − 𝜕𝑥 𝐸𝑦 = − 𝜕𝑦 and 𝐸𝑧 = − 𝜕𝑧 .

So 𝐸 = −𝛻 V .
Relationship between E and V

➢ Thus electric field intensity is the gradient of V.

➢ The negative sign shows that the direction of E is opposite to the direction in
which V increases.

➢ Since the curl of the gradient of a scalar function is always zero 𝛻 x 𝛻 V = 0.

➢ E is a gradient of some scalar function.

Problems
1
1. Given the electric field E = ( 4xyz ax - 2x2 z ay -2x2y az ) V/m, find the
𝑧2

differential amount of work done in moving a 10-nC charge a distance of 3μm

starting at P(-2,2,3) and proceeding in the direction.

(i) aL = 37 ax + 67 ay

6 3 2
(ii) aL = − ax + ay+ az
7 7 7
 Problems
2. An electric field is expressed in rectangular coordinates by E =6x2ax+ 6yay +4azV/m. Find

(a) VMN if points M and N are specified by M(2, 6,−1) and N(−3,−3, 2)

(b) VM if V = 0 at Q(4,−2,−35)

(c) VN if V = 2 at P(1, 2,−4).

Problems
3. Given the potential field, V = 2x2 y − 5z, and a point
P(−4, 3, 6)
(a) Find several numerical values at point P
(b) The potential V, the electric field intensity E,
(c) The direction of E
(d) The electric flux density D, and
(e) The volume charge density.
Problems
4. The potential distribution is of the form,

𝑉 = 10𝑦 3 + 20𝑥 2 . Find the Electric field intensity 𝐸ത at (10, 0) and (14, 16).

1Τ
5. Find the electric field intensity if 𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 ) 2
References

William H. Hayt : Engineering Electromagnetics - 6th Ed

Electromagnetic Field Theory Fundamentals/ Bhag Singh Guru , and Hüseyin R. Hiziroglu.
Engineering Electromagnetics by Sadiku
Electromagnetic field theory by Bakshi