20EC402: ANALOG & DIGITAL

COMMUNICATION
Prof. Snehal Nichale

S. Y. B. Tech

2021-22, Sem II
Examination Credits:
Teaching Scheme
Scheme 4

Lectures: 3 Tutorial: 1 In Semester: End Semester:

Hours / Week Hour / Week 50 Marks 50 Marks

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 1

 Course Objective
I intend you to learn by the end of the course

1. To introduce analog modulation and demodulation techniques

2. To study sampling process and pulse analog modulation techniques

3. To explore source coding techniques PCM, DPCM, DM, ADM

4. To explain conversion of digital data to digital signal

5. To explore binary and M-ary digital modulation techniques

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 2

Course Outcome:
After completion of the course, students will be able to

1. Interpret generation and detection of Amplitude modulation and Frequency

modulation

2. Apply sampling process and describe pulse analog modulation techniques with their
generation and detection

3. Apply source coding techniques and evaluate Bitrate, Bandwidth and Signal-to-noise
ratio

4. Interpret and apply data formats, Multiplexing, Synchronization and Intersymbol

Interference and Matched filter for reliable baseband transmission

5. Analyze bandpass modulation techniques and evaluate: Bit rate, Bandwidth and
Euclidean distance

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 3

20EC402: ANALOG & DIGITAL COMMUNICATION: SYLLABUS
Unit I: Analog Modulation (06)
• Amplitude Modulation,
• Types of AM: DSB-SC, SSB-SC, DSB-FC,
• Spectrum of AM, Modulation Index,
• Technical AM standards,
• AM generation and detector,
• Super heterodyne radio receiver,
• Angle modulation,
• Bandwidth of FM,
• FM generation, FM detectors,
• FM- superheterodyne radio receiver.

Unit II: Pulse Analog Modulation (05)

• Sampling Process:
• Sampling theorem (time and frequency domain),
• Types of sampling,
• Aliasing, Aperture effect,
• Pulse analog modulation techniques - PAM, PPM, PWM.

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 4

 Unit III: Digital Transmission of Analog Signal (08)

• Block diagram of digital communication system,

• Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
• Generation and Reconstruction, Quantization Noise,
• Non-uniform Quantization and Companding,
• Delta Modulation(DM),
• Adaptive Delta Modulation(ADM),
• Differential Pulse Code Modulation(DPCM),
• Adaptive Differential Pulse-Code Modulation (ADPCM).

Unit IV: Baseband Digital Transmission (08)

• Digital Multiplexing: Multiplexers and hierarchies,

• Data formats and their spectra,
• Synchronization:
• Bit Synchronization, Frame Synchronization
• Scramblers,
• Inter-symbol Interference,
• Equalization, Eye diagram.

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 5

 Unit V: Bandpass Digital Techniques (09)

• Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK),

• Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK),
• Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK),
• M-ary PSK,
• Quadrature Amplitude Shift Keying (QASK),
• Binary Frequency Shift Keying (BFSK),
• M -Ary FSK,
• Minimum shift keying (MSK),
• Introduction to GMSK.

Unit VI: Optimal Reception of Digital Signal (06)

• Optimum Filter,
• Matched Filter,
• Probability of Error of Matched Filter,
• Correlation receiver,
• Error probability for BASK, BPSK and BFSK.

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 6

 Text Books:

• 1. George Kennedy, ‘Electronic Communication Systems’, McGraw-Hill, (5th

Edition), (2013).
• 2. Simon Haykin, ‘Communication Systems’, John Wiley and Sons,( 5th Edition),
(2009).
• 3. Taub and Schilling, ‘Principles of Communication Systems’, Tata McGraw-Hill,
(4th Edition) (2015).

Reference Books:

• 1. B. P. Lathi, ‘Modern Digital and Analog Communication Systems’, Oxford

University Press, (3rd Edition) ,(2003).. Dennis Roddy and Coolen, ‘Electronic
Communication’, Prentice Hall, (4th Edition), (2011).
• 2. Bernard Sklar, “Digital Communications Fundamentals and Applications”,
Prentice Hall P T R, (2nd Edition), (2009).
• 3. A. B. Carlson and P. B. Crilly, “Communication Systems”, McGraw-Hill, (5th
Edition), (2002).
• 4. T. L. Singal, “Analog and Digital Communication”, Tata McGraw-Hill, (1st
Edition), (2012).

Web Resources https://nptel.ac.in/courses /108/104/108104091/

https://nptel.ac.in/courses /108/101/10810113/
15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 7
15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 8
 Unit I
Analog Modulation
Prof. Snehal Nichale
S. Y. B.Tech Sem II
16/2/2022

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 9

Unit I: Analog Modulation
Warmup

• Block diagram of basic communication system,

• Base band and Carrier communication,
• Need for modulation,

Amplitude Modulation

• Types of AM: DSB-SC, SSB-SC, DSB-FC,

• Spectrum of AM, Modulation Index,
• Technical AM standards,
• AM generation and detector,
• Super heterodyne radio receiver,

Angle modulation

• Bandwidth of FM,
• FM generation, FM detectors,
• FM- superheterodyne radio receiver.

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 10

 Introduction
Elements of Communication System:
Communication: It is the process of conveying or transferring
information from one point to another. (Or) It is the process of
establishing connection or link between two points for information
exchange. physical medium includes copper
wire, coaxial cable, fiber optic cable,
wave guide and free space or
atmosphere.

Information Input Channel Receiver Output

Transmitter
Source Transducer Transducer

words, Sound
group of Information Information
picture in electrical recreate the original in Original
words, Noise
speech data Form (non- electrical) form Form
code, data, etc. of the message signal
symbols,
signals etc.

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 11

 Signal
It is a physical quantity which varies with respect to time or space or independent or
dependent variable.
(Or)
It is electrical waveform which carries information.

Ex: m(t) = Acos(ωt+ϕ)

Where, A= Amplitude or peak amplitude (Volts)

ω = Frequency ( rad / sec)
ϕ = Phase (rad)

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 12

 Types of Signals
Analog or Continuous Signal: If the amplitude of signal continuously varies with
respect to time or if the signal contains infinite number of amplitudes, it is called
Analog or continuous signal.

Digital Signal: Signal contains only two discrete amplitudes.

Analog signals
A discrete signal

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 13

 Types of Signals
Baseband signal:
If the signal contains zero frequency or near to zero frequency
Ex: Voice, Audio, Video, Bio-medical signals etc.

Bandpass signal: If the signal contains band of frequencies far away from base
or zero, it is called bandpass signal.
Ex: AM, FM signals.

Baseband Bandpass
signal signal

Local oscillator

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 14

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 15
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Transmission Propagation
Name Frequency Wavelength Applications
media mode
Extremely Low • These includes AC Power line ( 50 – 60 Hz).
Frequencies 30 - 300 Hz 107 – 106 m • Normal range of human speech. Human hearing extends
(ELF) from 20 – 20 KHz.
Voice Frequency Ground Wave
300 – 3 KHz 106 – 105 m Wire Pair • Government & military communication.
(VF) Radio
Very Low
Frequency • Aeronautical & marine navigation. Frequencies in this
3 - 30 KHz 105 – 104 m
range are also used as subcarriers.
(VLF)
Low Frequency • AM Broadcasting (535 to 1605 kHz). Aeronautical &
30 - 300 KHz 104 – 103 m
(LF) marine navigation.
Medium High
Frequency 300 KHz - 3 • These frequencies generally called as Short Waves. Two
103 – 102 m
MHz way radio communication (Government & military
(MF) Coaxial Cable Sky Wave Radio
High Frequency services). Voice of America & BBC (British Broadcasting
3 - 30 MHz 102 – 101 m Corporation). Amateur Radio & CB Communications
(HF)
Very High • Mobile radio, Marine & Aeronautical communications,
1
Frequency 30 - 300 MHz 10 – 1 m FM Radio Broadcasting (88 MHz – 108 MHz) and
(VHF) television channels 2 through 13.

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 16

 Transmi Propag
Frequen Wavelengt
Name ssion ation Applications
cy h
media mode
• Television channels 14 through 67. Cellular telephone. Military
Ultra High 300 MHz -1
1 – 10 m operations and radio amateur. Frequencies above 1000 MHz
Frequency (UHF) - 3 GHz
Line-of- i.e. 1GHz are called Microwaves.
-1 -2 Waveguid
Super High 3 - 30 10 – 10 sight
e • Satellite Communication.
Frequency (SHF) GHz m Radio
Extra High 30 - 300 10 – 10-3
-2
• Satellite Communication and some specialized Radar.
Frequency (EHF) GHz m
• Infrared generally refers to heat. Astronomy to detect stars.
• Guidance in weapon systems.
Infrared 0.7 – 10 μm
• TV Remote controls. A heater or grill or toaster uses IR
radiation to heat a room or cook some food.
The visible 0.4 × 10-6 –
• Optical fiber communication.
spectrum 0.8 × 10-6 m
• Ultraviolet lamps are used to prevent crime by detecting
chemicals that we cannot see and checking to see whether a
Ultraviolet
bank note is forged or real.
• UV light can also cause skin cancer
• X-rays are very small waves that can pass through our bodies.
Some X-rays can pass through flesh but not bone, this lets us
see shadows of our bones.
X-rays • X-rays are also very useful for looking inside all sorts of
objects. They are used to find cracks in pipes and aircraft
parts. They are also useful for looking inside suitcases without
having to open them.
• Gamma rays are very penetrating and can be very dangerous
Gamma rays
to living cells. gamma rays can be used to kill bacteria.
15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 17
Modulation

• It is the process of varying the characteristics of high

frequency carrier in accordance with instantaneous values of
modulating or message or baseband signal.
(Or)
• It is a frequency translation technique which converts
baseband or low frequency signal to bandpass or high
frequency signal.

• Modulation is used in the transmitter.

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 18

 Types of Modulation

Continuous- Wave Modulation Pulse Modulation Digital Modulation

Amplitude Angle Analog Pulse Digital Pulse Binary M-ary

Modulation Modulation Modulation Modulation
(Source coding)
ASK M-ASK
PAM

Frequency Phase FSK M-FSK

PCM DM
Modulation Modulation PWM

DPCM ADM PSK M-PSK

PPM

ADPCM

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 19

Types of Modulation
• Amplitude Modulation:
• Amplitude of the carrier is varied in accordance with the
instantaneous values of modulating signal.

• Frequency Modulation:
• Frequency of the carrier is varied in accordance with the
instantaneous values of modulating signal.

• Phase Modulation:
• Phase of the carrier is varied in accordance with the instantaneous
values of modulating signal.

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 20

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 21
Need of Modulation
1. Increase range of communication
• The message signals like speech and music are in audio
frequency range, practically they can travel for few meters on
their own, but with the help of carrier, they can travel as long
as communication is desired.

2. Avoid mixing of signals

• Messages are concentrated in the same range (20 Hz – 20
kHz). In order to separate the signals, It is necessary to
convert them all to different portions of electromagnetic
spectrum.

3. Allows multiplexing of a signals

• Modulation process shifts the message signal frequency to a
very high frequency range (occupy negligible percentage of
spectrum).
• More no. of message signals are accommodated at higher
frequencies.
15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 22
 4. Reduces height of the antenna
• For efficient transmission and reception, the antenna height would have
length comparable to λ/4 of the frequency used.

5. Improves quality of reception

• With frequency modulation (FM) and the digital communication
techniques such as PCM, the effect of noise is reduced to a great extent.
This improves quality of reception.

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 23

 Amplitude Modulation

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 24

Time domain representation of AM
Let Ac be the carrier voltage and Am be the modulating voltages respectively,

Modulation index

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 25

 Equation of AM

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 26

 Modulation index

• Modulation index m or µ

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 27

 AM waveform for different indices

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 28

 Power Relation in AM Wave
• The amplitude of the sideband depends on the ‘m’,
• The total power in the modulated wave will depend on ‘m’ also.
• Pt is the total power of AM, Pc is carrier power and m is modulation index.

15 March 2022 29
Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department
 Transmission efficiency (η)
The ratio of the transmitted power which contains the information
i.e. the total sideband power to the total transmitted power.

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 30

Types of AM

Amplitude
Modulation

DSB-FC DSB-SC SSB-SC ISB VSB

Double sideband Single sideband Independent Vestigial

suppressed suppressed sideband system sideband system
carrier system carrier system

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 31

Introduction to Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier
The general form of AM or single tone modulation or DSB-FC :

• For 100% modulation about 67% of the total power is used to transmit the
carrier which does not contain any information.

• Hence we suppress the carrier,

• The resulting signal is called Double sideband suppressed carrier
(DSB –SC)

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 32

 Generation of DSB-SC signal
The DSB – SC

Baseband
signal

Modulation shifts the spectrum of m(t) to

the carrier frequency fc Hz.
(Fourier Transform - Frequency Shifting Property)

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 33

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 34
 m(t)Bandwidth: B Hz

modulated signal s(t)Bandwidth: 2B Hz

USB: Upper Sideband

LSB: lower Sideband

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 35

 DSB_SC Waveform

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 36

 DSB_SC
•

Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC

15 March 2022 37
Department
 DSB-SC
• Advantages of DSB-SC modulation
1. It provides 100% modulation efficiency.
2. Due to suppression of carrier, it consumes less power.
3. It provides a larger bandwidth.
• Disadvantages of DSB-SC modulation
1. It involves a complex detection process.
2. Using this technique it is sometimes difficult to recover the signal at the receiver.
3. It is an expensive technique when it comes to demodulation of the signal.
• Applications of DSB-SC modulation
1. During the transmission of binary data, DSB-SC system is used in phase shift
keying methods.
2. In order to transmit 2 channel stereo signals, DSB signals are used in Television
(to transmit colour information ) and FM broadcasting at VHF (transmitting stereo
information ).

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 38

 Single side-band (SSB) Modulation
• BANDWIDTH-EFFICIENT AMPLITUDE MODULATIONS
– The process of suppressing one of the sidebands, along with the
carrier and transmitting a single sideband

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 39

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 40
 SSB_SC
•

Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC

15 March 2022 41
Department
Comparison….

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 42

 Power calculation in AM
• Calculate the percentage power saving when the carrier and one of the sidebands are
suppressed in an AM wave modulated to a depth of (a) 100 percent and (b) 50 percent.

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 43

 Generation of AM (DSB-FC) signals
• The input should be A + m(t) instead of just m(t).
• The modulating circuit do not have to be balanced because there is no
need to suppress the carrier.

Switching action is provided by a single

diode and controlled by with

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 44

 Generation of AM signals cont…

The diode opens and short periodically with

infect multiplying the input signal by w(t).

The voltage across bb’ is:

AM Suppressed by bandpass filter

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 45
 Demodulation of AM Signals.
Methods of demodulation of AM signals:
1) Rectifier detection
2) Envelope detection

Rectifier detector:
AM signal is applied to a diode and resistor circuit, the negative part of the
AM wave will be suppressed.
The output across the resistor is the half wave rectified version of the AM
signal means multiplying AM with w(t).

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 46

 Demodulation of AM Signals.
1. Rectifier detection

negative part is suppressed

half wave rectified version of the AM signal means
multiplying AM with w(t).

AM signal

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 47

 Rectifier Detector contt…

The rectified output VR,

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 48

 Demodulation of AM Signals.
2. Envelope Detector
•The output follows the envelope of the modulated signal.
•During the +ve cycle of the i/p signal, the diode conducts and the capacitor ‘C’
charges up to the peak voltage of the input signal.
•When i/p signal falls below this peak value, the diode is cut off.
•(because the diode voltage which is nearly the peak voltage is greater than the input signal voltage
causing the diode to open ).
•At this stage the capacitor discharge at the slow rate (with a time constant RC)
•During the next positive cycle the process repeats.

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 49

2. Envelope Detector
(cont…)
• During each positive cycle the
capacitor charges up to the
peak voltage of the input
signal and then decays slowly
until the next positive cycle.
• This behavior of the capacitor
makes output voltage Vc(t)
follow the envelope of the
input signal.
• Capacitor discharges during
each positive peaks causes a
ripple signal of frequency wc
at the output

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 50

AM Receiver

• In radio communications, a radio receiver (receiver or simply

radio) is an electronic device that receives radio waves and
converts the information carried by them to a usable form.

• Main configuration of receiver

• The tuned radio-frequency (TRF) receiver
• The super heterodyne radio-receiver (SHRR).

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 51

Functions of Receiver
• Select desired signal and reject all others
• Collect the electromagnetic waves transmitted by the transmitter
• Amplify the selected modulated carrier signal
• Detect the modulating signal from the modulated RF signal
• Amplify the modulating signal to operate the loudspeaker

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 52

Tuned Radio Frequency receiver

TRF are easy to design and align at broadcast frequencies (535 to 1640
KHz)
It presented difficulties for high frequencies due to high gain achieved at
one frequency by a multistage amplifier

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 53

Super Heterodyne AM Receiver

• Heterodyne means mixing two frequencies and generating

single or constant frequency and the output of mixer will be
fixed frequency.

• Specification of AM Receiver:
• The frequency range of AM-MW( Medium wave) : (550-1650) KHz
• Band width of receiver:1650 KHz – 550 KHz = 1100 KHz
• Band width of each AM station : 10 KHz
• No. of stations available: 110
• Intermediate frequency (IF): 455 KHz

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 54

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 55
15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 56
Superheterodyne Receiver

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 57

 Super Heterodyne AM Receiver
Antenna: It is passive device which converts electromagnetic signal into
electrical signal.
RF Tuned Amplifier:
• It is broad band amplifier which contain tuning circuit and amplifier.
• Tuning circuit designed to select 110 stations and amplifier provides
amplification for 1100 KHz band width.
• RF tuned amplifier is responsible for sensitivity, selectivity, Image signal
rejection and noise reduction.
Mixer:
• It is combination of frequency mixer and Band Pass Filter (BPF).
• Frequency generates sum and difference frequency of incoming signal and locally
generated signal.
• BPF selects difference frequency at the output whose center frequency is
equal to= 455 KHz.
Local Oscillator:
• It is either Colpits or Hartley oscillator.
• It generates carrier frequency 455 KHz greater than the incoming carrier
frequency
15 March 2022 to produce constant or Nichale,
Prof. Snehal fixedMKSSS,
frequency.
CCEW, ETC Department 58
 Super Heterodyne AM Receiver
IF Amplifier:
• It is narrow band, high gain and fixed frequency amplifier which provides
amplification for 10 KHz band width at center frequency of 455 KHz.
• It is cascade CE amplifier which provides 90% of total receiver
amplification.

Detector or Demodulator:
• It is frequency translator circuit which extracts modulating signal from AM signal.
• Usually Envelope detector is used.
• Fidelity of the receiver is mainly depends on detector or demodulator.

Audio Amplifier:
• It is low frequency amplifier which provides amplification at (20- 20K) Hz.
• It contain cascade CE Voltage amplifier followed by Power amplifier.

Loud Speaker:
ItMarch
• 15 converts
2022
Electrical signal Prof.
into sound or audio signal.
Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 59
Super heterodyne Receiver

• Sensitivity - Ability to amplify weak signal

• Selectivity – Ability to reject unwanted signal
• Image frequency and its rejection –
Fo = Fs+Fi or Fo = Fs-Fi
So when fs and f0 are mixed, the difference frequency which is
image frequency fi
Fsi = fs + 2fi

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 60

 Angle Modulation

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 61

Angle Modulation

• Angle modulation employs variation of angle of the carrier

signal in proportion to the message

• There are two variants in angle modulation depending on

which component of the angle is varied

1. Frequency modulation
2. Phase modulation

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 62

Frequency Modulation (FM)

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 63

Frequency Modulation (FM)

• Frequency modulation is the

amount by which the carrier
frequency is varied from its
unmodulated value called frequency
deviation, is made proportional to
the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating voltage

• In FM all the components of the

modulating signal having same
amplitude will deviate the carrier
frequency by same amount

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 64

Mathematical Representation of FM
• It is seen that the instantaneous frequency f of the frequency
modulated wave is given by
f=fc + kfVmsinωmt
Where : fc is unmodulated carrier frequency
kf is proportionality constant expressed in Hz/volt
VmSinωmt is instantaneous modulating voltage
• The maximum deviation for this signal will occur when the sine
term has its maximum value ±1
That is instantaneous frequency will be
f=fc ± kfVm

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 65

Mathematical Representation of FM

• The maximum deviation will be given as

δ f = k fV m
• The instantaneous amplitude of FM signal will be given by
vFM = Vc sin[f(ωc, ωm)] = Vc sinθ
• where f(ωc, ωm) is function of the carrier & modulating
frequencies

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 66

•

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 67

Modulation Index for FM

• Modulation index is
• mf = maximum frequency deviation/modulating frequency
• mf = δf / fm
• Therefore vFM = Vc sin[ωct + δf/fm cosωmt] becomes
• vFM = Vc sin[ωct + mf cosωmt]

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 68

 FM Spectrum – Bessel Coefficients

The FM signal spectrum may be determined from

The values for the Bessel coefficients, Jn(β) may be found from
graphs or, preferably, tables of ‘Bessel functions of the first kind’.

69
15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 70
 FM Spectrum – Bessel Coefficients

Jn(β)

β = 2.4 β=5

In the series for vs(t), n = 0 is the carrier component, i.e. , hence the

n = 0 curve shows how the component at the carrier frequency, fc, varies in amplitude,
with modulation index β.
71
 Examples from the graph

β = 0: When β = 0 the carrier is unmodulated and J0(0) = 1, all other Jn(0) = 0, i.e.

β = 2.4: From the graph (approximately)

J0(2.4) = 0, J1(2.4) = 0.5, J2(2.4) = 0.45 and J3(2.4) = 0.2

72
 Significant Sidebands – Spectrum

As may be seen from the table of Bessel functions, for values of n above a certain
value, the values of Jn(β) become progressively smaller. In FM the sidebands are
considered to be significant if Jn(β) ≥ 0.01 (1%).

Although the bandwidth of an FM signal is infinite, components with amplitudes

VcJn(β), for which Jn(β) < 0.01 are deemed to be insignificant and may be ignored.

Example: A message signal with a frequency fm Hz modulates a carrier fc to produce

FM with a modulation index β = 1. Sketch the spectrum.

73
Significant Sidebands – Spectrum

• As shown, the bandwidth of the spectrum containing

significant components is 6fm, for modulation Index=1

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 74

Significant Sidebands – Spectrum

The table below shows the number of significant sidebands for various modulation
indices (β) and the associated spectral bandwidth.

e.g. for β = 5,
16 sidebands
(8 pairs).

75
Bandwidth of FM

• Carson’s Rule(States good approximation)

• The BW required to pass FM wave is twice the sum of deviation and

the highest modulating frequency

• BWFM = 2 (δf + fm )

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 76

Narrowband and Wideband FM

• Narrowband FM (NBFM)
• for small modulation index (mf < 0.3)
• there is only the carrier and 2 significant sidebands,
• i.e. BW = 2fm.
• FM with mf < 0.3 is referred to as narrowband FM (NBFM)
• Wideband FM (WBFM)
• For mf > 0.3 there are more than 2 significant sidebands.
• As mf increases the number of sidebands increases. This is referred
to as wideband FM (WBFM).

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15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 78
15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 79
Generation of FM
• Two major FM generation:
• i) Direct method:
• straight forward, requires a VCO whose oscillation frequency has linear
dependence on applied voltage.
• Advantage: large frequency deviation
• Disadvantage: the carrier frequency tends to drift and must be stabilized.
• example circuit:
• Reactance modulator and Varactor diode
• ii) Indirect method:
• Frequency-up conversion.
• Two ways:
• Heterodyne method
• Multiplication method
• One most popular indirect method is the Armstrong modulator

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 80

Generation of Frequency Modulation

• Direct Method

Basic Reactance modulator

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 81

Varactor Diode

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 82

FM Generation using VCO

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 83

Block diagram of the Armstrong indirect FM
transmitter

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 84

Block diagram of the Armstrong indirect FM
transmitter

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 85

 FM discriminator (detector)

•Slope detector,

•Balanced slope detector,

•Foster-seeley discriminator,

•Ratio detector

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FM Slope detector

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Drawbacks and Advantage of Slope detector
• Drawbacks
• Not linear as the output is dependent upon the curve of a filter.
• Not particularly effective as it requires the signal to be centered on the
falling response of a filter. This means that the signal cannot be received
at its maximum signal strength.
• Both frequency and amplitude variations are demodulated and this
means that much higher levels of noise and interference are experienced.

• Advantage
• its simplicity
• Enables FM to be detected without any additional circuitry.

• To overcome the drawbacks of the simple Slope detector, a

Balanced slope detector is used.

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Balanced Discriminator

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 89

Balanced Slope Detector

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90
Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department
 Balanced Slope Detector
Advantages:
•This circuit is more efficient than simple slope detector.
•It has better linearity than the simple slope detector.

Limitations:
•Even though linearity is good, it is not good enough.
•This circuit is difficult to tune since the three tuned
circuits are to be tuned at different frequencies, and
•Amplitude limiting is not provided.

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15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 92
15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 93
 FM Super heterodyne Receiver

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 94

 FM Super heterodyne Receiver

Basic difference with respect to AM receiver

• Generally much higher operating frequencies in FM
• VHF and UHF band (88 MHz to 108 MHz)
• Need for limiting in FM
• used to provide AGC Function
• Need for de-emphasis in FM
• To bring HF intelligence back to the proper amplitude relationship with the LF
• Totally different methods of demodulation i.e. discriminator
• Amplitude variations are derived in response to frequency or phase variations

Similarity with AM receiver process

• Selection of Intermediate frequency
• IF amplifiers are similar
Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC
15 March 2022 95
Department
15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 96
 Amplitude Modulation Frequency Modulation
In amplitude modulation, the frequency and phase remain the In frequency modulation amplitude and phase remain the
same. same.

Its modulation index varies from 0 to 1. Its modulation index is always greater than one.

It has only two sidebands. It has an infinite number of sidebands.

It has simple circuit. It has complex circuit.

The amplitude of the carrier wave is modified in order to send The frequency of the carrier wave is modified in order to send
the data or information. the data or information.

It requires low bandwidth in the range of 10 kHz. It requires high bandwidth in the range of 200 kHz.

In AM received signal is of low quality. In FM received signal is of high quality.

It works in a frequency range of 535 to 1705 Kilohertz (KHz). It works in a frequency range of 88 to 108 Megahertz (MHz).

It operates in the medium frequency (MF) and high

frequency (HF). It operates in the very high frequency.

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15 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department
S.NO. Frequency Modulation Phase Modulation
In Frequency Modulation amplitude and phase In Phase Modulation, the frequency and amplitude
1. remain the same. remain the same.

Frequency Modulation is proportional to Phase Modulation is proportional to modulating

2. modulating voltage. voltage.

Associated with the change in frequency, there Associated with the change in phase, there is some
3. is some phase change. frequency change.

4. It is possible to receive FM on a PM receiver. It is possible to receive PM on a FM receiver.

5. Noise immunity is poor than AM and PM. Noise immunity is better than AM but worst than PM.

Signal to noise ratio is better than in phase Signal to noise ratio is poor than in frequency
6. modulation. modulation.

7. Frequency Modulation is widely used. Phase Modulation is used in mobile system.

In FM, the frequency derivation is proportional In PM, the frequency derivation is proportional to the
8. to the modulating voltage only. modulating voltage as well as modulating frequency.

9. Amplitude of FM wave is constant. Amplitude of PM wave is also constant.

10. In FM, received signal is of high quality. In PM, received signal is of low quality.
15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 98
 Any Questions???

15 March 2022 Prof. Snehal Nichale, MKSSS, CCEW, ETC Department 99