Lab2 – Understanding the Effect of Variable Load on Efficiency of Synchronous Generator in Isolated

Operation

Lab 2
Understanding the Effect of Variable Load on
Efficiency of Synchronous Generator in Isolated
Operation

Objectives
▪ To determine the efficiency of a synchronous generator in isolated
operation supplying a resistive load by measuring the power supplied
and absorbed.

Hardware
Quantity Cat. No. Designation
1 733 07 Synchronous Machine SC 1.0
1 745 021 Excitation Voltage Controller 200V/2.5 A
1 726 256 Panel frame VT160, Three Level
1 726 75 Three-Phase Supply Unit with FCCB
2 732 56 Coupling 1.0
2 732 57 Shaft End Guard 1.0 2 732 58 Coupling Guard
1.0
1 732 592 Incremental Tacho 1.0
1 732 68 Pendulum Machine 1.0/2.0
1 732 695 Control Unit for Pendulum Machine
1 500 59 Safety bridging plugs, black, set of 10
1 500 592 Safety Bridging Plugs with Tap, black, set of 10
4 500 641 Safety connection lead 100 cm, red
1 500 642 Safety connection lead 100 cm, blue
6 500 643 Safety connection lead 100 cm, white
2 500 647 Safety connection lead 100 cm, brown
3 500 648 Safety connection lead 100 cm, grey
1 500 851 Safety connecting leads, 32 A, set of 32
1 500 852 Safety connecting lead 32 A, yellow/green, set of 10

1 775 360EN LIT: Synchronous generator and synchronization circuits E 3.1.1 & E 3.1.2
1 727 32 Moving Iron Meter 2.5 A
1 727 38 Moving Iron Meter 600 V
1 727 230 Universal Multifunction Meter MFA2001

Theory
In the area of public power supply, three-phase current has emerged as the
simplest form of power, in terms of both transmission and universal
application. Three-phase current can be transformed to a voltage level
appropriate for the distance it has to be transmitted and can be used in the
manner ideally suited for the consumer, e.g., for drive purposes. However,
electrical power cannot be stored in large quantities. Consequently, it must be
generated at the same time the consumer needs it.

EEE375 – Power Distribution and Utilization Laboratory Manual

 Lab2 – Understanding the Effect of Variable Load on Efficiency of Synchronous Generator in Isolated
Operation
The generation of electrical energy is performed almost exclusively using
highpower synchronous machines whose construction design depends on the
type of drive – normally steam, gas, or water. The name synchronous machine
(which can be used both as a generator and as a motor) stems from the fact
that the rotor runs at a constant speed, which is synchronous with the speed of
the magnetic field in a constant-voltage, constant-frequency system. The rotor
contains a DC winding (exciter winding), which in the case of generators
produces the desired three-phase voltage in the three-phase winding (stator
winding), which is evenly staggered along the circumference of the stator. This
design is referred to as a stationaryarmature machine.
In addition to this, there are also stationary-field machines, in which the exciter
winding is arranged on the stator and the three-phase winding is attached to
the rotor. Here, however, it is not the exciter power but the far greater three-
phase power which has to be supplied or transferred via brushes. As a result,
this design is limited to smaller scales.
Thermal power plants heated by coal, oil, gas, or nuclear reactors use steam
turbines and occasionally gas turbines as well for converting energy. For
construction reasons these are designed for high rotating speeds (3000 or
1500 rpm for networks with a frequency of 50 Hz). Because of this high
rotating speed and the associated centrifugal forces, the rotor must be solid
and may only have a small diameter. The exciter winding is inserted into
grooves which have been machined longitudinally into the rotor. Because the
power output of a generator is dependent on, among other things, its volume,
when it has a small diameter a longer length must be selected to get a high-
power output. Machines of this type are called nonsalient pole or turbo
generators.
The generators in water-driven power plants are designed differently. The
turbines available for driving these plants demonstrate considerably lower
rotating speeds in the range of 100 - 750 rpm approx. The rotor used here is
equipped with many legs type salient poles which accommodate the exciter
winding. In extreme cases a machine of this type can have up to 60 individual
poles. The larger diameter permits the machine to have a considerably shorter
rotor length despite the high power being generated. Machines of this type are
called salient-pole generators.
The largest synchronous generators are found in nuclear power stations and
are capable today of producing power of up to 1300 MW at a nominal stator
voltage of 27 kV. Despite the high degree of efficiency - over 98% - the power
losses involved (above all current heat dissipation in the windings) are
considerable in large-scale machines and require expensive cooling facilities,
for example, water cooling for the stator as well as the rotor. In contrast to
asynchronous machines, a synchronous machine cannot start independently. (If
a damper winding is present in the rotor, there is the possibility of a so-called
asynchronous start-up, at least in smaller machines. However, this is not made
use of in power supply).
Due to the unrivalled importance of turbo generators for power generation and
to simplify mathematical investigation, especially in comparison to the salient-
pole machine, we wish to limit the following considerations to the former
machine type. However, the conclusions drawn from this machine can
generally be applied to machines with salient poles. In the present experiment,
a four-pole turbo generator is investigated; a DC pendulum machine performs
the drive function. This in turn is supplied by a special control unit, with which
the various operating modes (e.g., constant speed) can be set.

EEE375 – Power Distribution and Utilization Laboratory Manual

 Lab2 – Understanding the Effect of Variable Load on Efficiency of Synchronous Generator in Isolated
Operation
To determine the degree of efficiency, it is also possible to display the torque of
the pendulum machine. The machine is operated in so-called isolated
operation. This is an operating mode in which the generator supplies just one
single consumer. Voltage magnitude and frequency are determined here by the
synchronous machine.

Figure 1: Single-phase equivalent circuit diagram of the turbo generator in stationary operating mode

The variables occurring in the equivalent circuit diagram have the following
meanings:
IE: Exciter current (in rotor)
UP: Synchronous generated voltage (in stator, star voltage)
US: Stator voltage (star voltage)
Xh: Main field reactance of the stator winding
Xσ: Leakage reactance of the stator winding
RS: Resistance of the stator winding
The rotor is energized by a DC current - the exciter current ‘l E’ - and driven
externally with synchronous rotation speed. Given the frequency ‘f’ of the
voltage to be generated and using the equation f = p.n, the synchronous
rotating speed ‘n’ is produced from the number of pole pairs ‘p’ in the rotor.
Thus, with the frequency kept constant the synchronous rotation speed of the
machine decreases as the number of pole pairs increases. With a frequency of
50 Hz and a four-pole rotor (i.e., with the number of pole pairs p = 2) we
obtain, for example, a synchronous rotating speed of 1500 rpm. On one hand,
maintaining a constant frequency is of importance when taking the connected
consumer into consideration; on the other hand, it is an absolute prerequisite
for operation of the generator on the interconnected system.

synchronous generated voltage ‘⃗𝑈⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑃 ’. By means of certain design measures the

The voltage induced in the stator winding by the rotating rotor is called the

windings can be arranged so that this voltage assumes a sinusoidal

characteristic. In addition to this the three-phase winding in normally
connected in star configuration, where the star point is not, however,
connected to the system. This prevents the formation and multiplication of the
third current harmonic.
The magnitude of the synchronous generated voltage is a function of the
exciter current ‘lE’ and as the so-called no-load characteristic reproduces the
typical characteristic of the magnetization curve of an iron core with air gap.
Since we are dealing with an induction process here, the synchronous

EEE375 – Power Distribution and Utilization Laboratory Manual

 Lab2 – Understanding the Effect of Variable Load on Efficiency of Synchronous Generator in Isolated
Operation
generated voltage is proportional to the rotating speed of the machine when
the exciter current is constant. Although the synchronous generated voltage is
not directly accessible for measurement, it is identical to the stator voltage in
the no-load case, because no voltage drop occurs in the machine. The total flux
permeating through the stator winding consists of the main and leakage flux.
Accordingly, the two reactances are defined X h (main field reactance) and X σ
(leakage reactance). The two in conjunction constitute the synchronous
reactance Xd, which is also referred to as armature reactance. (In three-phase
machines that section which bears the threephase winding is called the
"armature". In large machines this is always the stator.)
The following holds for synchronous reactance: X d = Xh + Xσ
Large machines show values of 0.07 up to 0.2 for the ratio of leakage
reactance to main field reactance. To keep the losses in generators at a
minimum, the resistance RS of the stator winding is designed as small as
possible by selecting the appropriate diameter for the copper windings. Thus,
for rough observations, RS can be ignored in comparison with the synchronous
reactance Xd, at least in the case of large machines; consequently, the
equivalent circuit diagram can be simplified as shown in figure 2.

Figure 2: Simplified equivalent circuit diagram of the turbo generator in stationary operating mode (single-
phase)

If the intention is to supply consumers in isolated operation with constant

voltage, then this requires automatic voltage control, which is carried out with
the aid of the exciter current of the synchronous machine. As we have already
mentioned, large electrical machines have an efficiency of almost 100%.
Determining the efficiency from the ratio of active power output to active
power consumed is normally then too inaccurate, as the power measurements
themselves involve certain faults. More precise results are obtained by
applying the so-called single-loss method, in which each type of power loss is
determined per se using appropriate measuring methods or it is computed.
Since here it is necessary to draw a distinction between current-independent
losses (e.g., friction and fan losses, core losses) and current-dependent losses
(ohmic losses, contact losses and stray losses), this method is very time-
consuming. In this experiment we are dealing with a low-power machine with
correspondingly higher power loss. The determination of the efficiency can be
performed here with sufficient accuracy by taking the quotient of active power
output and input. In the case of a resistive load the power output can be
determined most easily by measuring the current and voltage; otherwise by
measuring the active power.

EEE375 – Power Distribution and Utilization Laboratory Manual

 Lab2 – Understanding the Effect of Variable Load on Efficiency of Synchronous Generator in Isolated
Operation
The power consumed by the machine consists of the exciter power ‘P E’
together with the mechanical power supplied to the shaft ‘P mech’. The former
can be determined out of the current and voltage measurement, where the
losses in the exciter voltage controller are not taken into consideration. The
mechanical power supplied to the generator can be determined using a special
device employed at the DC machine used as the drive. This machine is
designed as a so-called pendulum machine and possesses a bending bar with
strain gauges, which detect the torque at the shaft and transfer this data to the
control unit. The following general relationship exists between the torque ‘M’
and the corresponding mechanical power ‘P mech’:
𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ = 2𝜋|𝑀|𝑁
Where, M = torque of the drive in Nm and N = speed in revolutions per second
and the mechanical power is in watts (W). In the present experiment the
efficiency determination is easy to perform, because, in addition to the torque,
the speed of the machine is also detected and can be displayed on the control
unit. The efficiency of the machine is given by:
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜂=
𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠

Where, 𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ +𝑃𝐸 = 2𝜋|𝑀|(60𝑛)+𝑈𝐸𝐼𝐸 and 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 .

Pre-Lab Tasks
1. What do you understand about ‘light’ and ‘heavy’ loads?
2. Why the efficiency of a synchronous generator is ‘poor’ at light loads?

In-Lab Task
Effect of Variable Load on Efficiency of a Synchronous
Generator
1. Assemble the circuit as shown in figure 1.1

EEE375 – Power Distribution and Utilization Laboratory Manual

 Lab2 – Understanding the Effect of Variable Load on Efficiency of Synchronous Generator in Isolated
Operation

Figure 1.1: Experimental Setup for In-Lab Task

2. Set the resistive load to an approximate 40% resistance value.

3. Switch on the control unit for the pendulum machine by pressing and
holding the ‘display’ button with one hand while switching on the panel from
power button. Do not release the display button until a clicking noise is
heard. This permits the machine-generator set to operate in four-quadrant
modus.
4. After a moment, the control unit signals "Error 1" in the display, because
there is still no three-phase mains present. Switch on the power supply to
the control unit via the main switch of the three-phase power supply with
FCCB unit. The error signal is now deleted by pressing the reset pushbutton.
5. By switching on the pendulum machine, the ventilator starts automatically
and simultaneously permits the transmission of the measured torque value
to the control unit. Select the operating modus "Speed Control" using the
operating mode switch "Mode" on the control unit.
6. The machine-generator set is started up by pressing the toggle switch
"REFERENCE VARIABLE" upwards. After some time, the machine-generator
set reaches its nominal speed of 1500 rpm.
7. Now the synchronous machine can be supplied with an excitation voltage.
The toggle button must be pre-set to the right on the Excitation Voltage
Controller Switch. For this the pushbutton "UP" is pressed until the desired
stator voltage of 400 V (line-line) has been reached. If the speed of
machine-generator set should be decelerated, then the excitation of the
synchronous machine must first be lowered to zero using the pushbutton

EEE375 – Power Distribution and Utilization Laboratory Manual

 Lab2 – Understanding the Effect of Variable Load on Efficiency of Synchronous Generator in Isolated
Operation
"DOWN". The same must be performed if any change in stator circuit is
required. To obtain the correct experiment results, the synchronous machine
should be warmed up for several minutes at the set load (40%). Note the
values of various parameters given in table 1.1 at the set load of 40% in the
corresponding table column.
Note: The value of excitation current needs to be adjusted for every value
of resistive load to ensure that US remains at 400 V (line-line).
8. The mechanical power being absorbed by the generator is determined from
the torque of the pendulum machine. This can be read off on the control
unit after activating the display switch "Display". The value of the torque is
negative because the pendulum machine is acting as the drive. Press the
“Display” button again to revert to the display of generator speed.
9. Reduce the excitation of the synchronous machine to zero using the
“DOWN” pushbutton and change the resistance to 60%. Press the “UP”
pushbutton until the desired stator voltage of 400 V (line-line) is re-
established. Wait for some time before noting the values of various
parameters given in table 1.1 in the corresponding column. Repeat this step
for the remaining values of resistance to tabulate all cells of table 1.1.
10.Calculate the values for ‘P abs’, ‘Pout’, and ‘η’ from formulas given in ‘Theory’
section and tabulate the results for each resistance in table 1.2. Plot the
efficiency values as a function of the active power ‘P out’ supplied to the
mains in the graph (figure 1.2) and identify the point of maximum efficiency.

Post-Lab Task(s)
1. Plot the η(Pout) characteristics (η as a function of P out).
2. Give analysis of your performed task in light of the tabulated data in the
‘Critical Analysis/Conclusion’ section provided at the end.
R (%) 100 80 60 40 30 20

UE (V)

IE (A)

US (V) 400 400 400 400 400 400

IS (A)

M (Nm)

Table 1.1: Table for Recording Data from In-Lab Task

R (%) 100 80 60 40 30 20

Pout (W)

Pabs (W)

η (%)

EEE375 – Power Distribution and Utilization Laboratory Manual

Lab2 – Understanding the Effect of Variable Load on Efficiency of Synchronous Generator in Isolated
Operation

Table 1.2: Table for Calculated Values from Data in In-Lab

Task

Figure 1.2: Plot of Efficiency as a Function of Supplied Active Power ‘P out’

Critical Analysis / Conclusion (To be filled in by the student)

EEE375 – Power Distribution and Utilization Laboratory Manual

Lab2 – Understanding the Effect of Variable Load on Efficiency of Synchronous Generator in Isolated
Operation

Lab Assessment (To be filled by the lab-instructor)

Pre-Lab /5

In-Lab /5

Results /5

/25
Viva /5

Critical
/5
Analysis

Comments:

Instructor Name Instructor Signature

EEE375 – Power Distribution and Utilization Laboratory Manual