RESEARCH

METHODOLOGY:
INTRODUCTION
WHAT IS RESEARCH?

ØResearch is a process for collecting, analyzing and

interpreting information to answer questions.
ØA careful investigation for new facts in any
branch of knowledge
ØRedman and Mory: Research is a systematic
effort to gain new knowledge
WHAT IS RESEARCH?
Clifford Woody

› defining and redefining problems, formulating

hypothesis/objectives;

› collecting, organizing and evaluating data;

› making deductions and reaching conclusions;

› testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the

formulating hypothesis/objectives
RESEARCH PROCESS: CHARACTERISTICS AND REQUIREMENTS

¡ To qualify as research, the process must have certain

characteristics:
¡ controlled,
¡ rigorous,
¡ systematic,
¡ valid and verifiable,
¡ empirical and critical
RESEARCH PROCESS: CHARACTERISTICS AND REQUIREMENTS

¡ Controlled – In real life there are many factors that affect an

outcome.
¡ A particular event is seldom the result of a one-to-one
relationship.
¡ Some relationships are more complex than others.
¡ Most outcomes are a sequel to the interplay of a multiplicity
of relationships and interacting factors.
RESEARCH PROCESS: CHARACTERISTICS AND REQUIREMENTS

¡ Controlled –
¡ In a study of cause-and-effect relationships it is important to be
able to link the effect(s) with the cause(s) and vice versa.
¡ The concept of control implies that, in exploring causality in
relation to two variables,
¡ you set up your study in a way that minimizes the effects of
other factors affecting the relationship.
RESEARCH PROCESS: CHARACTERISTICS AND REQUIREMENTS

¡ Rigorous – You must be scrupulous in ensuring that

the procedures followed to find answers to questions
are –
¡ relevant,
¡ appropriate and
¡ justified.
RESEARCH PROCESS: CHARACTERISTICS AND REQUIREMENTS

¡ Systematic – This implies that the procedures adopted

to undertake an investigation follow a -
¡ certain logical sequence
¡ Valid and verifiable – This concept implies that
whatever you conclude on the basis of your findings is-
¡ correct and can be verified by you and others
RESEARCH PROCESS: CHARACTERISTICS AND REQUIREMENTS

¡ Empirical – This means that any conclusions drawn are based

upon -
¡ hard evidence gathered from information collected from real-life
experiences or observations
¡ Critical – Critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the
methods employed is crucial to a research enquiry
TYPES OF RESEARCH
Types of research can be looked at from three
different perspectives:
¡ 1. applications of the findings of the research
study;
¡ 2. objectives of the study;
¡ 3. mode of enquiry used in conducting the study.
TYPES OF RESEARCH: APPLICATION PERSPECTIVE
¡ Pure research involves developing and testing theories and
hypotheses that are intellectually challenging to the
researcher but may or may not have practical application at
the present time or in the future
¡ Examples of pure research include –
¡ developing a sampling technique that can be applied to a
particular situation;
¡ developing a methodology to assess the validity of a procedure;
¡ developing an instrument etc.
TYPES OF RESEARCH: APPLICATION PERSPECTIVE

¡ Applied research - Finding solutions for immediate

problems facing a society/industry
¡ Most of the research in the social sciences is applied
¡ Research methodology are applied to the collection of
information about various aspects of a situation,
issue, problem or phenomenon so that the information
gathered can be used in other ways – such as for
policy formulation, administration of control measures
TYPES OF RESEARCH: OBJECTIVES PERSPECTIVE

¡ Descriptive study attempts to describe systematically

a situation, problem, phenomenon, service or
programme, or provides information about,
¡ Say, the clinical signs showed by a new disease in a
community
¡ Correlational study is to discover or establish the
existence of a relationship / association /
interdependence between two or more aspects of a
situation
¡ Say, relationship between smoking and lung cancer
TYPES OF RESEARCH: OBJECTIVES PERSPECTIVE
¡ Explanatory research attempts to clarify why and how
there is a relationship between two aspects of a situation
or phenomenon.
¡ This type of research attempts to explain, for example, why
stressful living results in heart attacks;
¡ Exploratory research is when a study is undertaken with
the objective either to explore an area where little is
known or to investigate the possibilities of undertaking
a particular research study
¡ When a study is carried out to determine its feasibility it is
also called a feasibility study or a pilot study
TYPES OF RESEARCH: MODE OF ENQUIRY PERSPECTIVE

¡ The structured approach everything that forms

the research process – objectives, design,
sample, and the questions that you plan to ask of
respondents – is predetermined
¡ The unstructured approach, by contrast, allows
flexibility in all these aspects of the process
TYPES OF RESEARCH: MODE OF ENQUIRY PERSPECTIVE
¡ Structured approach to enquiry is usually classified as quantitative
research and unstructured as qualitative research
¡ A study is classified as qualitative if the purpose of the study is
primarily to –
¡ describe a situation, phenomenon, problem or event;
¡ if the information is gathered through the use of variables
measured on nominal or ordinal scales (qualitative
measurement scales);
¡ and if the analysis is done to establish the variation in the
situation, phenomenon or problem without quantifying it (e.g.
peoples experience on healthcare system).
TYPES OF RESEARCH: MODE OF ENQUIRY PERSPECTIVE

¡ The study is classified as quantitative if you want to -

¡ quantify the variation in a phenomenon, situation, problem or
issue;
¡ if information is gathered using predominantly quantitative
variables;
¡ and if the analysis is geared to ascertain the magnitude of the
variation.
¡ Examples of quantitative aspects of a research study are: How
many people have a particular health problem? How many
people hold a particular attitude?
 EIGHT STEPS IN RESEARCH
¡ PHASE I DECIDING WHAT TO RESEARCH
¡ Step I Formulating a research problem
¡ PHASE II PLANNING A RESEARCH STUDY
¡ Step II Conceptualizing a research design (Study designs)
¡ Step III Constructing an instrument for data collection (Questionnaire)
¡ Step IV Selecting a sample (Sample size calculation and sampling technique)
¡ Step V Writing a research proposal
¡ PHASE III CONDUCTING A RESEARCH STUDY
¡ Step VI Collecting data
¡ Step VII Processing and displaying data (Data analysis)
¡ Step VIII Writing a research report
PHASE I: DECIDING WHAT TO RESEARCH

¡ Step I: formulating a research problem

¡ Formulating a research problem is the first and most
important step
¡ A research problem identifies your destination: it should
tell you, your research supervisor and your readers what
you intend to research
¡ The main function of formulating a research problem is to
decide what you want to find out about.
STEP I: FORMULATING A RESEARCH PROBLEM
¡ It is extremely important to evaluate the research problem in
the light of –
¡ the financial resources at your disposal, the time available,
and your own and your research supervisor’s expertise and
knowledge in the field of study.
¡ It is equally important to identify any gaps in your knowledge
of relevant disciplines, such as statistics required for analysis.
¡ Also, ask yourself whether you have sufficient knowledge
about computers and software if you plan to use them.
STEP I: FORMULATING A RESEARCH PROBLEM

¡ Most research in the humanities revolves around

four Ps:
¡ people;
¡ problems;
¡ programmes;
¡ phenomena.
STEP I: FORMULATING A RESEARCH PROBLEM

¡ You may select -

¡ a group of individuals (a group of individuals – or a
community as such – ‘people’),
¡ to examine the existence of certain health problems
relating to their lives (‘problem’),
¡ to establish the existence of a regularity (‘phenomenon’)
¡ or to evaluate the effectiveness of an intervention
(‘programme’).
RESEARCH PROBLEM

¡What is the prevalence of COVID-19

among diabetic patients and the
effect of vaccines in decreasing the
prevalence?