1.

INTRODUCTION

The living world is filled with striped and mottled patterns of contrasting
colours (with sculptural equivalents of those realized as surface crests and
troughs); with patterns of organization and behaviour even among individual
organisms.

“What governs there? What is that issues orders, foresees the future, elaborates
plans and preserves equilibrium, admitters, and condemns
to death?”

Many such questions increases curiosity to find the reason for the existence.

MATHEMATICS: AS A SOLUTION TO THE PATTERN

FORMATION

The geometry of most patterns in nature can be linked to mathematical

numbers either directly or indirectly. However, to understand this
correspondence, it is first necessary to have an appreciable knowledge of a few
mathematical series, ratios and plots.

The fibonacci sequence is related to the Golden ratio, a proportion that

occurs frequently throughout the natural world and is applied across many
human endeavours. First derived from the famous “rabbit problem “of 1228, the
Fibonacci numbers were originally used to represent the number of pairs of

1
rabbits born of one pair in a certain population. The chapter Fibonacci numbers
gives a brief introduction to the fibonacci sequence, its properties and its
applications. In the next chapter the basic concepts and definitions of difference
equations are recalled and in the final chapter the role of Fibonacci numbers in
difference equations is analysed.

PROJECT PLAN

The main aim of the project is to understand the mathematics behind

this famous sequence, to learn more about its properties and the applications, to
extend the ideas to more general recurrent sequences and to discuss the role of
Fibonacci numbers in difference equations.

2. FIBONACCI NUMBERS

A hike in the woods or a walk along the beach reveals an endless variety of
forms. Nature abounds in spectral colors and intricate shapes - the rainbow
mosaic of a butterfly’s wing; the delicate curlicue of a grape tendril; the
undulating ripples of a desert dune. But these miraculous creations not only
delight the imagination, they also challenge our understanding. How do these

2
patterns develop? What sorts of rules and guidelines, shape the patterns in the
world around us?

Crystals are likewise constructed with mathematical regularity. A chemist

could readily explain how positively and negatively charged sodium and
chloride ions arrange themselves neatly in a crystal lattice, resulting in salt
crystals with a perfect cubic structure. And water molecules, high in the clouds
with temperatures far below freezing, neatly coalesce to form crystalline
snowflakes in the form of six-sided stars or hexagonal needles.

Think of the striking regularity of alternating dark and light stripes on a

zebra’s coat, or the reticulations on the surface of fruiting body of a morel (a
variety of mushroom) mushroom. Zooming in for a close-up of a slime mold,
you can observe the branching network patterns that emerge as the mold grows.
On a still smaller scale, magnified several hundred times, similar patterns
emerge on the surface of a pollen grain. People have long been tempted to find
some obscure ‘intelligence’ behind all these biological patterns.

The Fibonacci sequence is named after an Italian mathematician Leonardo

Pisano known as Fibonacci who lived during 1170-1250.

3
 The classical Fibonacci numbers are defined a the series of numbers
generated by the pattern which is a recurrent sequence of integers such as,

1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144...,

where each number in the sequence is given by the sum of the previous
two terms. This pattern is given by u1 = 1, u2 = 1 and the recursive formula

un = un − 1 + un – 2, n > 2.

The fibonacci sequence is related to the Golden ratio, a proportion that

occurs frequently throughout the natural world and is applied across many
human endeavours. First derived from the famous “rabbit problem” of 1228, the
Fibonacci numbers were originally use1d to represent the number of pairs of
rabbits born of one pair in a certain population.

A pair of rabbits is assumed to be introduced into a certain place in the first

month of the year. This pair of rabbits will produce one pair of offspring every

4
month, and every pair of rabbits will begin to reproduce exactly two months
after being born. No rabbit ever dies, and every pair of rabbits will reproduce
perfectly on schedule. So, in the first month, we have only the first pair of
rabbits. Likewise, in the second month, we again have only our initial pair of
rabbits. However, by the third month, the pair will give birth to another pair of
rabbits, and there will now be two pairs.

Now continuing on, we find that in month four we will have 3 pairs, then 5
pairs in month five, then 8, 13, 21, 34, ..., etc, continuing in this manner. It is
quite apparent that this sequence directly corresponds with the Fibonacci
sequence introduced above, and indeed, this is the first problem ever associated
with the now-famous numbers.
An application of Fibonacci numbers and it being established as a basic
definition was discussed, next some simple properties regarding the Fibonacci
numbers and their sums will be explained. In many interesting cases such
difference equations are nonlinear; that are deterministic, neoclassical, growth
model is represented by a system of nonlinear equations.

The Golden Ratio and the Fibonacci Series

Leonardo Fibonacci began the study of this sequence by posing the

following problem in his book, Liber Abaci “How many pairs of rabbits will
be produced in a year, beginning with a single pair, if in every month each
pair bears a new pair which becomes productive from the second month
on?”

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 Of course, this problem gives rise to the sequence 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, ....
Fibonacci used the arithmetic series to illustrate the above problem based on the
pair of breeding rabbits and the result can be expressed numerically as 1, 1, 2, 3,
5, 8, 13, 21, 34, ...,
Fibonacci numbers are indeed of great interest to biologists and physicists
because they are frequently observed in various natural objects and phenomena.
The branching patterns in trees and leaves, for example and the distribution of
seeds in a raspberry are based on Fibonacci numbers. A Sanskrit grammarian,
Pingala is credited with the first mention of the sequence of numbers, sometime
between the fifth century B.C. and the second or third century A.D. Since
Fibonacci introduced the series to western civilization, it had a high profile from
time to time.

The Fibonacci numbers is related to the GOLDEN RATIO, a proportion

(roughly 1:1.6) that occurs frequently across many ares of the world. The golden
ratio 1.618 is termed as PHI (φ) based on the name of the greek architect
Phidias, who applied this proportion in greek architecture.

2.1 The Golden Ratio:

In calculating the ratio of two successive Fibonacci numbers, , we find

that as n increases without bound, the ratio approaches .

Theorem 1.

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Proof. Since

un+1 = un + un−1;

by definition, it follows that

Now, let

We then see that

We now have the statement

which is equivalent to the equation

This equation can then be rewritten as

7
 L2 − L − 1 = 0

which is easily solved using the quadratic formula. By using the quadratic
formula, we have

Thus, we arrive at our desired result of

Even for relatively low values of n, this ratio produces a very small error. For
example

and

The value is the positive root of the equation x2 − x−1 = 0 and is

Referred to as φ. It arises often enough in mathematics and has such interesting

properties that we also frequently refer to it as the golden ratio.

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 A rectangle the proportion of whose sides is equal to the golden ratio is
known as a GOLDEN RECTANGLE. A rectangle whose sides are 1.618 and 1
unit.

A rectangle is drawn and is placed horizontal. Then a square along the

shortest side of this rectangle is drawn and a quatre circle between the two
corners of the square is drawn. Then, a square and a quater circle on the
remaining side is drawn and is done for all the remaining rectangles in the main
rectangle. When

Figure 1: The Golden rectangle

it is done we will end up with a spiral. In mathematics this is also known as

LOGARITHMIC SPIRAL.

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 The florets in a sunflower head also form two spirals, but there’s no
rotation here. It’s simply an efficient packing solution for the plant. With 55
florets running clockwise and 34 anticlockwise, the sunflower is an example of
the pattern of numbers called the Fibonacci numbers.

It’s a simple pattern with complex results, and it is often found in nature.
We notice that both group of florets in a sunflower match the Fibonacci numbers
as do the number of rows in a pinecone, the arrangement of leaves on a stem and
many other natural formations. In fact, the spiral shape itself is built upon the
rapidly increasing pattern of the Fibonacci sequence.

Pinecone, Sunflower and sea shell exhibiting Fibonacci sequence

Pinecone, Sunflower and Spiral shell exhibiting Fibonacci sequence

The logarithmic spiral is the spiral of life . This spiral is evident in all
forms of life on earth in their DNA molecules as well as physical shapes.

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 The DNA molecule, the program of life, is also based on the golden
section. It measures 34 angstroms in length and 21 angstroms wide for each full
cycle of its double helix spiral. 34 and 21, of course, are numbers of the
Fibonacci series and their ratio is almost equal to Phi. Spiral shells also exhibit
patterns related to the Fibonacci sequence.

The Pascal’s triangle

The Milky way galaxy

By the way, the Fibonacci sequence also shows up in Pascal’s triangle if

we add the diagonals and also from hurricanes to galaxies, spiral patterns seem
omnipresent in our universe.

The human face also abounds with examples of the golden section or the
divine ratio. The head forms a golden rectangle with the eyes at its midpoint.
The mouth and the nose are each placed at golden sections of the distance
between the eyes and the bottom of the chin.

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 A perfect square can be drawn having two of its four corners at the two
pupils of the eyes and the remaining two at the corners of the mouth. The golden
section of the four sides to the square gives the nose, the inside of the nostrils,
the

two rises of the upper lip and the inner points of the ear.

2.2 Some properties:

Lemma 1. The sum of the first n Fibonacci numbers is given by

u1 + u2 + u3 + ··· + un = un+2 − 1.

Proof. Indeed, we have,

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 u1 = u3 − u2
u2 = u4 − u3
u3 = u5 − u4
...............

un−1 = un+1 − un
= un+2 − un+1
Adding up these equations term by term, we obtain

u1 + u2 + u3 + ··· + un = un+2 − u2.

and all that remains is to remember u2=1.

Lemma 2. The sum of the Fibonacci numbers with odd suffixes is

u1 + u3 + u5 + ··· + u2n−1 = u2n.

Proof. To establish this equation, we shall write

u1 = u2
u3 = u4 − u2
u5 = u6 − u4
............

u2n−1 = u2n − u2n−2

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Adding these equalities term by term, we obtain the required result.

Lemma 3. The sum of Fibonacci numbers with even suffixes is

u2 + u4 + u6 + ··· + u2n = u2n+1 − 1 (1)

Proof. From Lemma 1 we have

u1 + u2 + u3 + ··· + un = u2n+2 − 1 (2)
From lemma2 we have

u1 + u3 + u5 + ··· + u2n−1 = u2n. (3)

subtracting equation (3) from equation (2) we get

(4)
u2 + u4 + ··· + u2n = u2n+2 − 1 − u2n = u2n+1 − 1

Further, subtracting (1) from (3) term by term we get

u1 − u2 + u3 − u4 + ··· + u2n−1 − u2n = −u2n−1 + 1 (5)

Now, let us add u2n+1 to both sides of equation (5).

u1 − u2 + u3 − u4 + ··· − u2n + u2n+1 = u2n + 1 (6)

Combining equations (5) and (6), we get for the sum of Fibonacci numbers with

alternating signs.

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u1 − u2 + u3 − u4 + ··· + (−1)n+1un = (−1)n+1un−1 + 1 (7)

3 DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3.1 Basic concept, definitions

Differential equations have been a fundamental tool for

modelling the natural world. As the name suggests, these equations involve
the derivatives of dependent variables (e.g., viral load, species densities,
genotypic frequencies) with respect to independent variables (e.g. time,
space). When the independent variable is scalar, the differential equation is
called ordinary. Far from ordinary, these equations have provided key
insights into catastrophic shifts in ecosystems, dynamics of disease
outbreaks, mechanisms maintaining biodiversity, and stabilizing forces in
food webs.[11]

Definition 1. A Differential equation is an equation containing derivatives of a

dependant variable with respect to one or more independent variables.

Example:

15
is a differential equation

Definition 2. An Ordinary differential equation is a differential equation

containing a single independent variable. The derivatives occurring in the
equation are called ordinary derivatives.

ODEs that lack additive solutions are nonlinear, and solving them is far
more intricate, as one can rarely represent them by elementary functions in
closed form: Instead, exact and analytic solutions of ODEs are in series or
integral form. Graphical and numerical methods, applied by hand or by
computer, may approximate solutions of ODEs and perhaps yield useful
information, often sufficing in the absence of exact, analytic solutions.

Definition 3. A Partial differential equation is a differential equation containing

two or more independent variables. The derivatives occurring in the equation are
called partial derivatives.

PDEs are used to formulate problems involving functions of several

variables, and are either solved in closed form, or used to create a relevant
computer model. PDEs can be used to describe a wide variety of phenomena
such as sound, heat, electrostatics, electrodynamics, fluid flow, elasticity, or
quantum mechanics.

Definition 4. A Linear differential equation is an equation of the form

16
where ai(x) are functions of x only. It is an equation in which each term is of first
degree in the dependant variable and its derivatives.

Definition 5. A linear differential equation is called homogenous if the

following conditions are satisfied: If φ(x) is a solution, so is cφ(x). Where c is an
arbitrary (non-zero constant). A linear differential equation that fails this
condition is called non-homogenous. (The order for this condition to hold is that
each term in a linear differential equation of the dependant variable y must
contain y or any derivative of y).

Definition 6. The characteristic equation is the equation which is solved to find

a matrix’s eigenvalues, also called the characteristic polynomial. For a general k
× k matrix A, the characteristic equation in variable λ is defined by

det (A − λI) = 0

where I is the unit matrix of order k and det(B) is the determinant of the matrix
B.
Writing A out explicitly gives

so the characteristic equation is given by

17
Definition 7. A Difference equation, also called recurrence
equation, is an equation that defines a sequence recursively each
term of the sequence is defined as a function of the previous terms
of the sequence. We may write the general
difference equation as follows:

yn = b0x(n) + b1x(n − 1) + ··· + bMx(n − M) − a1y(n − 1) − ··· − aNy(n − N)

= M∑ i=0 bix (n − i) − N∑ i=0 ajy (n − j)

where x is the input signal, y is the output signal, and the constants b i,i =
0,...,M,aj,j = 1,...,N are called the co-efficient.

The study of difference equation has become fascinate,

because one can derive many complex behaviours based on simple
formulation. One can see difference equation that at least three
points of view: as a sequence of numbers, discrete dynamical
system and iterated function.

Definition 8. A First-order difference equation is an equation

xt = f (t, xt−1)

18
where f is a function of two variables. A solution of the first order
difference equation xt = f(t,xt−1) is a function of x of a single
variable whose domain is the set of integers such that x t = f(t,xt−1)
for every integer t, where xt denotes the value of x at t.
Definition 9. A First-order linear difference equation with constant co-efficient
is a first order difference equation for which

f(t, xt−1) = axt−1 = bt,t = 1,...

Definition 10. A Second-order difference equation is an equation

xt+2 = f(t, xt,xt+1)

where f is a function of three variables. A solution of the second-

order difference equations xt+2 = f(t, xt,xt+1) is a function of a single
variable whose domain is the set of integers such that x t+2 =
f(t,xt,xt+1) for every integer t, where xt denotes the value of x at t.

Definition 11. A Second-order linear difference equation with constant co-

efficient is a second order difference equation that may be written in the form

xt+2 + axt+1 + bxt = ct

where a,b and ct for each value of t, are numbers. The equation is
homogenous if ct=0 for all t.

3.2 Applications of difference equations:

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 Many populations engage in seasonal breeding versus continuous
breeding. The cost of winter breeding, presumably, overweigh the
benefits. This hypothesis is well accepted. Energy availability in the
winter is generally low. Therefore, many animal populations restrict
their reproductive activities to specific times of the year when food is
abundant and survival and reproductive success is high.
In addition to seasonal breeding, many populations also have
their juveniles and adults compete for different resources. Anurans
are a good example of such populations. They have a bi-phasic
lifestyle, living on land and in water at different stages in their life
cycle. Tadpoles feed on algae while frogs feeds on crickets, wax
worms, mealworms, small silkworms, red worms, moths, and flies.
Therefore, in this population intra-competition within each stage
occurs.

Also, the results indicate that for a range birth rates seasonal
reproduction is advantageous in the sense that for such birth rates
the autonomous population becomes extinct while the seasonal
population is uniformly persistent with respect to the origin. This is
an example where the difference equation is greatly used.

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 4. ROLE OF FIBONACCI NUMBERS IN

DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS

A difference equation, also called recurrence equation as

already defined, is an equation that defines a sequence recursively
and each term of the sequence is defined as a function of the
previous terms of the sequence:

Xn = f(Xn−1, Xn−2,...X0) (8)

Example:

Xn = Xn − 1 + Xn − 2 (9)

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 equation (9) defines the so-called Fibonacci sequence. Starting
with

X0= 1 and X1 = 1, can easily be calculated with each following terms of the
sequence:

1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21, 35, ….., (10)

Note that each term can be computed only if the two first terms of
the sequence are given. Those terms are called the initial conditions
of the system. The applications of difference equation in population
dynamics has been already seen. For example, Eq.(9) can be seen
as a (very simple) model for growth and reproduction of a rabbit
population.

22
 Figure 2: The rabbits population

The pattern described here is that each generation remains as a

part of the next and in addition each grown up pair contributes a baby
pair. The number of such baby pairs matches the total numbers of pairs
during the month n.

fn = fn−1 + fn−2.

23
 So, the recursive formula where each generation is defined in terms of
the previous 2 generations. So this sequence of numbers 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13,
21, ..., and the recursive way of constructing it add infinitum is the solution
to the Fibonacci puzzle.

The configuration has many interesting and important properties:

• The left -right symmetry -is its own mirror image.

• In each row, the second number counts the row.

• in each row, the second + third counts the numbers above the line.

Next while adding up the numbers doubling sequence is obtained.

If the triangle is drawn left justified and added up the number on

various diagonals, we get 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34,..., the Fibonacci
sequence.

Another example of a recurrence relation commonly used in

population dynamics is the logistic map:

Xn = rXn−1(1 − Xn−1) (11)

A difference equation is said linear when each term of the

sequence is defined as a linear function of the preceding terms. For

24
example, equation (9) is
linear, while (11) is non-linear because it involves the term Xn2−1.
The order of a linear recurrence relation is the number of
preceding terms required by the definition. Thus, the relation x n =
2xn−2 is of order two because at least two preceding terms to
compute any term xn (whether they are both used or not).
Accordingly, equation (9) is of the 2nd order while equation (11) is
of the first order.

The general form of a linear recurrence relation of order p is as

follows:

Xn = an−1Xn−1 + an−2Xn−2 + ... + an−pXn−p + a0 (12)

If the coefficients ai does not depend on n, then the recurrence

relation is said to have constant coefficients also if a0 = 0, the
recurrence relation is said to be homogeneous. Solving a difference
equation means to find an explicit relation between X n and the
initial conditions. For equation (9), such an equation would allow
us to evaluate X360 (given X0 and X1) without computing all the 360
intermediary values.

The method to solve a difference equation depends on the

type of equation taken. Now the homogeneous linear difference
equations are focussed. The case of non-linear difference equations
such as equation (11) is treated.

25
4.1 First order linear difference equations

The simplest first-order difference equation is the homogeneous equation:

Xn+1 = aXn (13)

The solution can be found easily:

Xn+1 = aXn = a(aXn−1) = ... = a (a (a... (aX0)))

and thus

Xn = anX0 (14)

More generally, non-homogeneous first-order difference equation

takes the form:

Xn+1 = aXn + b (15)

4.2 Second order linear difference equations

A general second order linear difference equations is written as:

Xn+2 + aXn+1 + bXn = 0 (16)

Its solution is:

(17)

26
where λ1 and λ2 are the solutions of the characteristic equation:

λ2 + aλ + b = 0 (18)
Example 1: solving equation (9). This equation can be rewritten as:

Xn+2 − Xn+1 − Xn = 0 (19)

The corresponding characteristic equation is

λ2 − λ − 1 = 0 (20)

The roots are

(21)

Successive terms in the Fibonacci sequence are given by:

(22)

The constants c1 and c2 are then determined by the initial conditions:

Thus, if x0 = 0 and x1 = 1, then
c1 + c2 = 0

c1λ1 + c2λ2 = 1 (23) i.e.

c2 = −c1

½ (c1(1+√5)+c2(1-√5))=1 (24)

27
 We thus find

(25)

and the solution is

(26)

We observe that λ1 > 1 and −1 < λ2 < 0. Hence, for n large, the
second term will become negligible and we get:

(27)

Finally, we can also notice that lim

=1.618033..., which is known as the Golden ratio.

The difference equations and progressions or sequences of

vectors were already discussed. The general idea is this. A fixed
matrix A is considered and is given a vector v 0. Then apply A
repeatedly to generate a sequence of vectors:

v1 = Av0v2 = Av1v3 = Av2...

In this handout the Fibonacci numbers generated using a

difference equation approach is seen. To review, the Fibonacci
numbers make up the sequence 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13,...in which each
term is the sum of the two preceding terms. The first one is

28
considered the first Fibonacci number. Although not shown, the
zeroth
Fibonacci number, 0 can be included.
4.3 Vectors of Fibonacci Numbers.

For our difference equation analysis, we consider the vectors

Where Fn is the nth fibonacci number. For example,

The process for going from one vector must be understood in the sequence to the
next.This can be described by a matrix as follow.

This works because

29
The nth fibonacci number

Using the difference equation set up presented on the preceding page, it is seen
that

Or in more detail

This gives a computational algorithm for the nth Fibonacci

number: multiplying the right-hand side of the preceding equation,
and then take the top entry of the resulting vector. Alternatively, to
obtain the top entry of the vector, its dot product is taken with [1
0]T. That leads to

30
 Using the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix in this equation, a
direct algebraic expression for the nth Fibonacci number has been ended up.

4.4 Applications

Certain natural phenomena such as the spirals patterns on

sunflowers to be governed by this sequence. These numbers also
occurs in the analysis of algorithms and are of sufficient interest to
mathematicians to have a journal devoted to the study of their
properties, the difference equation that represents this model is
given by

F(n + 2) = F(n + 1) + Fn,F(0) = 1,F(1) = 1,n ≥ 0

4.5 Conclusion

To conclude, a system of homogeneous difference equations can

always be solved analytically (although finding the roots of the
characteristic equations may be challenging for system of order
larger than 2). The qualitative behaviour of the system depends on
the nature (real vs complex) and value of the (real part) of the eigen
values.

31
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Modulization 2012-2013

[2] Edelstein-Keshet L (2005; originally 1988) Mathematical Models in

Biology, SIAM Editions.

[3] Murray JD (1989) Mathematical Biology, Springer, Berlin.

[4] Brousseau, Alfred. (1971). Linear Recursion and Fibonacci Sequences.

San Jose: The Fibonacci Association.

[5] Hoggatt, Jr, Verner. (1969). Fibonacci and Lucas Numbers. Boston:

Houghton Miin Company.

[6] Vorob’ev, N . (1961). Fibonacci Numbers. New York: Blaisdell Pub.
Co.

[7] Gauss, Carl F. (1801) Disquisitiones Arithmeticae.

Referenced at

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/modulo.

[8] Renault, Mark. (2002). The period of F(mod m) for 1 ¡ m ¡ 2002.

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 Retrieved October 4, 2007, from http://webspace.ship.edu/msrenault
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[9] Renault, Mark. (2000). The Fibonacci Sequence Modulo M. Retrieved

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nault/fibonacci/.html.

[10] Guichard, David. Professor of Mathematics at Whitman College, The

Golden ratio.

[11] Brualdi, Richard. (1999). Introductory Combinatorics, Third Edition.

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[12] Gemunu H. Gunaratne, David K. Hoffman, Donald J. Kouri; Physical

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[13] A. J. Koch and H. Meinhardt; Reviews of Modern Physics, Vol. 68, No.
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(1984)

[14] Jan C.A. Boeyens; Crystal Engineering 6 (2003) 167-185

[15] C. Bowman and A. C. Newell; Review of Modern Physics, Vol. 70, No.
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(1998)

[16] Scott Camazine, Natural History, June 2003

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 [17] Adam, John A; Mathematics in Nature: Modeling Patterns in the
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World, published by New Jersey K: Princeton University Press, 2003

Web references:

1. http://www.scottcamazine.com/personal/DesignNature

2. http://www.mcs.surrey.ac.uk/Personal/R.Knott/Fibonacci/fibratio.html

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