Syllabus Reference

Introduction to control systems and their

representation by different equations and
Laplace transforms.
Block diagrams and transfer functions
Analog computer solution of system
equations
System response, control action, and system
types.
Frequency response
System analysis
System compensation
Analogous of control systems
Hydraulic and pneumatic control systems
Elements of electro-mechanical control
Introduction to digital computer control

What is Control Engineering?

Control engineering is all about designing systems that automatically adjust and maintain the
desired output/ conditions/ behaviors of a system.

Imagine you have a thermostat controlling the temperature in your home. The thermostat
measures the temperature and decides whether to turn the heating or cooling system on or off to
keep the temperature at the set point. The control engineer designs the thermostat to respond
quickly to temperature changes and maintain it within the desired range.

Another example is cruise control in a car. When you set a certain speed, the cruise control
system automatically adjusts the throttle to maintain that speed, regardless of changes in terrain
or wind resistance. A control engineer designs this system to ensure smooth and accurate speed
regulation.
What is the System Response?

When we talk about the response of a dynamic system, we're talking about how it behaves over
time when you give it some input.

 The whole idea of control systems is to ensure the system gives the response we want.
 The nature of these responses depends on the system itself and the kind of input it
receives.

Transient or Natural Response:

This part of the response happens right after you give the system an input like when you turn on
your car and it takes a moment to get going smoothly.

Steady-State or Forced Response:

Once the transient response settles down, we have what's called the steady-state response. This is
how the system behaves in the long run after it has adjusted to the input.

Servo Step Response.

In control systems, a step response diagram is a graphical representation that illustrates how a
system responds to a sudden change or step input. A servo system, commonly used in robotics
and automation, is a type of control system that maintains a desired output by adjusting its
inputs.

Here's how you can interpret a step response diagram for a servo system:
Step Input: The step input represents a sudden change in the reference or desired value for the
system. For example, if the servo is controlling the position of a robotic arm, a step input might
represent a sudden command to move the arm to a new position.

Response Curve: The response curve shows how the system's output (e.g., position, velocity, or
acceleration) changes over time in response to the step input. Initially, there might be a transient
response as the system adjusts to the new input. This can include overshoot, where the output
exceeds the desired value before settling down.

Steady-State Response: Eventually, the system reaches a steady-state where the output stabilizes
at the new desired value. In the case of a servo controlling position, this would mean the robotic
arm stops moving and settles at the new position.

Measurement System vs. Control System

The distinction between a measurement system and a control system lies in their primary
functions and purposes:

Measurement System:

Purpose: A measurement system is designed primarily to observe, quantify, and record specific
parameters of a system. It focuses on gathering data about the system's behavior or output.

Functionality: In a measurement system, the emphasis is on sensing and acquiring information

about the system's input, output, or intermediate variables. These measurements are often used
for analysis, monitoring, or diagnostic purposes.

Example: In the context of the given motor system, if the focus is on measuring variables like
electric power input and rotational speed output, it would be considered a measurement system.
Here, the system's primary function is to quantify and monitor these parameters.
Control System:

Purpose: A control system is aimed at regulating the behavior of a system to achieve desired
outcomes. It focuses on actively adjusting the system's inputs or parameters to maintain or
achieve specific objectives.

Functionality: In a control system, there's an active feedback loop where measurements of the
system's output are used to adjust its input or parameters in real-time. The goal is often to
maintain certain conditions, optimize performance, or achieve a specific target.

Example: In the given motor system, if the objective is not only to measure the electric power
input and rotation speed output but also to adjust the input power to maintain a constant rotation
speed despite external disturbances, then it would be considered a control system. Here, the
system actively adjusts the input (electric power) based on feedback from the output (rotation
speed) to achieve the desired outcome.

Combination of Measurement and Control System:

Purpose: Some systems combine elements of both measurement and control functionalities. They
gather data about the system while simultaneously using that data to regulate or manipulate the
system's behavior.

Example: An automatic control system integrates both measurement and control functionalities.
It continuously monitors the system's output, compares it to a desired reference or setpoint, and
then adjusts the system's inputs accordingly to maintain or achieve the desired output. In the case
of the motor system, an automatic control system would not only measure the electric power
input and rotation speed output but also adjust the power input to keep the rotation speed
constant or within a specified range automatically.

Thermocouple
A thermocouple is a sensor used to measure temperature. It consists of two different conductors
that are joined together at one end. When there is a temperature difference between the two
junctions (the joined end and the free end), it creates a voltage proportional to the temperature
difference, according to the Seebeck effect. This voltage can be measured and correlated with the
temperature being sensed.

Display Decoder

A display decoder is a combinational logic circuit used to convert a binary or BCD (Binary
Coded Decimal) input into a format suitable for driving a specific type of display, such as a
seven-segment display. Seven-segment displays are commonly used to represent numerical digits
(0-9) and some alphabetic characters (A-F) by illuminating various combinations of seven
segments arranged in a specific pattern. A display decoder takes binary-coded input and activates
the appropriate segments of the display to represent the corresponding digit or character. Display
decoders are commonly used in digital clocks, calculators, and other electronic devices with
numerical or alphanumeric displays.

Steady-state depends on the nature of the input function

Increasing the frequency while maintaining the duty cycle constant will generally increase motor
speed.

Different Types of Response in Dynamic System

Rise time directly reflects how quickly a system can respond to changes or disturbances. A
shorter rise time indicates a faster response, which can be critical in applications where rapid
adjustments are necessary to maintain stability or performance.

Zeroth Order System

Voltage Divider Rule

Working Principle of Potentiometer

 Xi
Rt
XL
V o= ×V
Rt

Ideal Dynamic Performance

Characteristics of ideal dynamic performance may include:

Immediate Response: The system responds instantaneously to changes in input signals without
any delay or time lag. There is no inertia or time required for the system to adjust to new
conditions.

Perfect Tracking: The system accurately tracks the desired reference signal or input without
any error or deviation. The output of the system precisely follows the input with no distortion or
offset.

No Overshoot or Oscillation: The system achieves the desired steady-state value without any
overshoot or oscillation during the transient response. The response settles smoothly and quickly
to the desired value without any ringing or oscillatory behavior.
Stability and Robustness: The system remains stable and robust under various operating
conditions, disturbances, or uncertainties. It does not exhibit instability, divergence, or sensitivity
to changes in parameters.

First Order System (Lecture 2, Page 11)

The physical meaning of the time constant (τ) in this context represents the characteristic time it
takes for the temperature of the thermocouple to reach a significant portion (approximately
63.2%) of the difference between its initial temperature T and the ambient temperature after
being suddenly exposed to the new environment.

The concept of the time constant representing the time to reach approximately 63.2% of the final
value is derived from the mathematics of first-order systems.

In a first-order system with a step input (a sudden change from one value to another), the output
response follows an exponential decay or rise towards its final steady-state value. The
mathematical expression for the response of a first-order system to a step input is given by:

−t /τ
y ( t ) =K (1−e )

where:

y(t) is the output at time t,

K is the steady-state value (the final value of the output),

τ is the time constant.

At t = τ, the term e -1 equals approximately 0.368, which means that 1- e -1 is approximately 0.632.
Therefore, after one time constant (τ), the output of the system has reached approximately 63.2%
of its final value.

In the given system, a thermocouple is initially at a temperature T, and it is suddenly exposed to

an environment at a different temperature T ∞. The heat transfer between the thermocouple and its
surroundings occurs through convection, and this process can be described by a first-order
dynamic system. The physical meaning of the time constant (τ) in this context represents the
characteristic time it takes for the temperature of the thermocouple to reach a significant portion
(approximately 63.2%) of the difference between its initial temperature T and the ambient
temperature T ∞ after being suddenly exposed to the new environment.

Let's break down the physical meaning of the time constant:

Rate of Temperature Change: The time constant (τ) reflects how quickly the temperature of
the thermocouple changes in response to the sudden change in its surroundings. A smaller time
constant indicates a faster rate of temperature change, while a larger time constant implies a
slower rate of change.

Approach to Steady-State: After a certain time (approximately τ), the temperature of the
thermocouple approaches a steady-state value, which is the equilibrium temperature between the
thermocouple and its surroundings. The time constant characterizes how rapidly the
thermocouple approaches this steady-state temperature.

System's Sensitivity: The time constant provides insight into the sensitivity of the system to
changes in its surroundings. A smaller time constant suggests that the system is more sensitive to
external changes and reaches its new temperature more rapidly, while a larger time constant
implies a less sensitive response.

Page 28