Antenna Parameters and Definitions

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Main Takeaways

▶ Radiation patterns
▶ Directivity and gain
▶ Polarization

▶ Effective aperture
▶ Vector effective length
▶ Circuit model of receiving and transmitting antenna
▶ Friis transmission formula
▶ Antenna temperature

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Antenna Parameters and Definitions

An antenna is an RF device that can be used to transmit

and/or receive electromagnetic waves in a controlled way

Antennas are characterized by their radiation, circuit and other relevant physical
properties

Radiation Properties Circuit Properties

▶ Field and power pattern ▶ Impedance
▶ Directivity and gain ▶ Bandwidth
▶ Side-lobe level
▶ Half-power beamwidth Other Properties
▶ Beam solid angle ▶ Size
▶ Beam efficiency ▶ Weight
▶ Polarization ▶ Price
▶ Radiation efficiency ▶ Manufacturability

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Antenna Patterns

Normalized field pattern F (θ, ϕ) in the far field

-
→
|E(r , θ, ϕ)|
F (θ, ϕ) = →-
|E(r , θ, ϕ)|max

▶ Can be defined also for chosen field component

▶ Dimensionless, 0 ≤ F (θ, ϕ) ≤ 1

Normalized power pattern P (θ, ϕ) in the far field

S(r , θ, ϕ) U (θ, ϕ)
P (θ, ϕ) = F 2 (θ, ϕ) = =
S(r , θ, ϕ)max U (θ, ϕ)max

▶ Dimensionless, 0 ≤ P (θ, ϕ) ≤ 1

▶ P (θ, ϕ)dB = F (θ, ϕ)dB

▶ U(θ, ϕ) is the radiation intensity i.e. power per unit solid angle

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 A 3-D Normalized Field Pattern, F (θ, ϕ)

▶ A spherical plot of a field pattern

▶ F(θ, ϕ) is represented as the distance from the origin and plotted as a function of
direction

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Cross Section of Normalized Field Pattern, F (θ)

1st null
Side lobes
En=0.707

z
∆0 ∆3dB
En=1.0
e

lo b
M ai n
Back lobes
En=0.707
Null
1st null

▶ A plane section through the main lobe

▶ 2-D parameters of the field pattern:
• ∆3dB = HPBW (half-power beamwidth)
• ∆0 = FNBW (first nulls’ beamwidth)

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 Cross Section of Normalized Power Pattern P (θ, ϕ) in dB

0
3 1st side-lobe level, SLL
HPBW

FNBW
10

20

150◦ 100◦ 50◦ 0◦ 50◦ 100◦ 150◦

▶ Decibel values are obtained by calculating 10 log10 [P (θ, ϕ)] = 20 log10 [F(θ, ϕ)]

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Beam Solid Angle, ΩA

The beam solid angle ΩA is defined as

Z
ΩA = P (θ, ϕ) dΩ
4π

The same solid angle is possessed by an imaginary antenna having

P (θ, ϕ) = 1 over ΩA and zero elsewhere because
Z
ΩA = dΩ
ΩA

Beam efficiency ϵM is defined as

R
P (θ, ϕ) dΩ
ΩM ΩM
ϵM = =
ΩA ΩA
where ΩM is the solid angle of the main beam
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Directivity and Gain

Maximum Directivity D of an antenna is the ratio of the maximum power density to

its average value over a sphere in the far field:

S(r , θ, ϕ)max S(r , θ, ϕ)max

D= = 1
S(r , θ, ϕ)av 2 Prad
4π r

Which can also be written in terms of the power pattern:

4π 4π
D= R =
P (θ, ϕ) dΩ ΩA
4π

▶ The smallest possible value for the directivity is 1

S(r , θ, ϕ)
▶ Directivity function: D(θ, ϕ) =
S(r , θ, ϕ)av

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Maximum Gain G of an antenna is defined as

S(r , θ, ϕ)max Pin

G= 1 =⇒ S(r , θ, ϕ)max = G
Pin 4π r 2
4π r 2

where Pin = Prad + Ploss is the input power produced to the antenna

Due to losses the radiated power Prad is always less than the input power

Prad = κ Pin
where κ is the radiation efficiency, (0 ≤ κ ≤ 1)

Hence, one may write

S(r , θ, ϕ)max S(r , θ, ϕ)max

G=κ 1 =κ =κD
Prad S(r , θ, ϕ)av
4π r 2

S(r , θ, ϕ)
Gain function: G(θ, ϕ) = κ 1 = κ D(θ, ϕ)
4π r 2
Prad

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Polarization

Spherical wave

Any antenna far field is always a spherical wave of the form

- e
-
→ −jkr
→
E=e
4π r

- e
- - −jkr
→ 1→- → 1→- →
H = ur × E = ur × e
η η 4π r
-
▶→ -
→ -
→ →- → -
e = eθ u θ + eϕ u ϕ . Note that e = e(θ, ϕ), eθ = eθ (θ, ϕ) and eϕ = eϕ (θ, ϕ)
√ ω 2π
▶ k = ω µ0 ϵ0 = =
c0 λ
• eθ and eϕ are, in general, complex valued =⇒ the field is a complex vector
-
→ - → - - -
→ -
→
• E ⊥→ →
u r , H ⊥ u r and E ⊥ H
- -
→
• The unit of →
e, eθ and eϕ is V, but for E it is V/m

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-
→
A spherical time-harmonic wave is represented by a complex vector E from which the
real electric field is obtained as

( )
- →
→ n→ - o e j(ωt−kr )
- →-
E(r, t) = Re E ejωt = Re e =
4π r
1 h→ - -
→
i
e Re cos(ωt − kr ) − e Im sin(ωt − kr )
4π r

The time-dependent electric field vector ’draws’ and ellipse at any position in space

- →
→ -
E(r,t)

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 ωt −kr=0 ωt−kr=π/2

−→
eIm

→
e Re

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Polarization

Polarization of an antenna in a given direction is the polarization of the radiated field.

If the direction is not stated polarization of the maximum radiation is assumed

Time-harmonic electric and magnetic fields are complex vectors which, in general,
correspond to elliptical polarization

The polarization ellipse is uniquely defined if

1. Its axial ratio is known

2. Its normal direction is known
3. Its orientation in the plane perpendicular to
the normal is known
4. Its handedness is known, i.e., the rotation
direction of the time-dependent field vector is
known - →
→ -
E(r,t)

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 -
→
Helicity Vector, P
- →
→ - →-
The helicity vector P(e) reveals the polarization state of e
→- → -
- →
→ - e × e∗
P(e) = → - → -
j e · e∗

It possesses always the following properties:

- →
→ -
1. P(e) is a real vector
- →
→ -
2. 0 ≤ |P(e)| ≤ 1
- →
→ - →- - →
→ - → -
3. P(e) is normal to the plane of e, i.e., P(e) · e = 0
-
• except for linearly polarized →
e
- →
→ -
4. P(e) points towards the propagation direction of a right-handedly polarized wave
- -
→ -
• P(→ →
e) = 0 for linearly polarized e which doesn’t possess handedness
-
→ →- -
• if the propagation direction of E is known, P(→ e) reveals its handedness

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- →
→ -
5. |P(e)| = P gives the axial ratio (AR) of the polarization ellipse:
1 p
AR = (1 − 1 − P 2 )
P

• if -
→
P =1 e is circularly polarized
• if -
→
P =0 e is linearly polarized

Semi-major and Semi-minor Axes of Polarization Ellipse

It can be shown that the field vectors on the semi ma-

jor and semi minor axis are given by
q ( → - )
-
→ - →
→ - e
b = ± e · e Re p→ - →-
e·e
q ( → - )
-
→ - →
→ - e
c = ± e · e Im p→ - →-
e·e

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Handedness of Wave (in electrical engineering)

Left-handedly polarized wave: if the thumb of the left hand points the propagation
direction the wave and the curling of the other fingers match to the temporal rotation
of the electric field vector, the polarization of the wave is left handed (LH)

▶ LHCP =⇒ left-handed circular polarization

▶ LHEP =⇒ left-handed elliptical polarization

▶ RHCP =⇒ right-handed circular

polarization
▶ RHEP =⇒ right-handed elliptical
polarization
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Example: Polarization of two short perpendicular dipoles with 90◦ phase shift
between the currents
-
→
The far field in the direction +u z :

-
→ e−jkz -
→ →- -
→
E = −jωµ P · IL(u y + j u x ) uy
4π z I
jI -
→
ux

→- → -
-
→ E × E∗
P= →- → -
j E · E∗

-
→ →- -
→ →- →- -
→
-
→ (u y + j u x ) × (u y − j u x ) −2j u y × u x →-
=⇒ P = → - →- -
→ →- = = uz =⇒ RHCP
j(u y + j u x ) · (u y − j u x ) j(1 + 1)
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Electromagnetic Reciprocity

Maxwell’s equations give rise to the follow-

ing reciprocal invariance
Z Z I1 E2
-
→ -
→ -
→ -
→
J 1 · E 2 dV = J 2 · E 1 dV E1
V1 V2

in rather general conditions concerning the

media. I2

Assume a radio link of two arbitrarily oriented Hertzian dipoles as illustrated. The
integration gives

→- -
→ →- -
→
I1 L1 u 1 · E 2 = I2 L2 u 2 · E 1 =⇒ I1 Uo12 = I2 Uo21
Hence

Uo12 Uo21
= =⇒ Z12 = Z21
I2 I1

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Effective Length Vector

Circuit Model of a Radio Link

I2
U2
I1
U1

Linearity of the radiation problem ⇒ linear relation between the terminal voltages and
currents
! ! !
U1 Z11 Z12 I1
=
U2 Z21 Z22 I2

Reciprocity =⇒ Z12 = Z21

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 I1 Z11 − Z12 Z22−Z12 I2

U1 Z12 U2

▶ Reciprocity means that antennas operate similarly in reception and in transmission

▶ Antennas in the far field =⇒ |Z12 | ≪ |Z11 |, |Z22 |

U1 U2
Z12 = =
I2 I1 =0 I1 I2 =0

The impedance Z12 models the coupling of the antennas and depends on

▶ the field patterns and the orientations of both antennas

▶ the polarizations of the antennas

▶ the distance between the antennas

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The Effective Length Vector

-
→
E
-
→
U (E)
The incoming field induces voltage at the receiver’s -
→
k
port

-
→
U(E) is a linear function of the electric field:

U(→ - -
→ →- -
→
E 1 + E 2 ) = U (E 1 ) + U (E 2 ) -
→ - →
→ -
- - =⇒ U(E) = h · E
 U (α → E) =
→
α U (E)
- →
→ -
h(u r ) is the effective length vector of the antenna1
▶ It is a complex vector =⇒ acts on the polarization and the direction of the
incoming wave
-
→ -
→
Note: h and E are expressed in the same coordinate system!
1 R.E. Collin: Antennas and Radiowave Propagation, Chapt. 5

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The effective length vector can be determined from the mutual impedance between
two antennas forming a radio link:

U1 U2
Z12 = = a
I2 I1
→- → - →- → - - →
→ - - →
→ -
h 1 (u r 2 ) · E 2 (r 1 ) h 2 (u r 1 ) · E 1 (r 2 )
= a
I2 I1
→- → - →- → - →- → - →- →-
h 1 (u r 2 ) · P · A2 (r 1 ) h 2 (u r 1 ) · P · A1 (r 2 )
=
I2 I1
Z
→- α - →
→ - →- → - ′
=⇒ the length vector is of the form h= P · J(r ′ )ej k · r dV ′
I
V′

What is the value of the unknown constant α?

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Consider a Hertzian dipole receiving a plane wave as illustrated

The induced current density of the dipole is

- →
→ - -
→ -
→
J(r) = u z IL δ(r)

I
The effective length vector is thus

→- α
Z
-
→ →- →- → - ′ -
→
U
h= P · u z IL δ(r ′ ) ej k · r dV ′ = u z αL
I
V′
-
→
E
Hence, the voltage at the port is
- →
→ -
U = h · E = −αEL = EL =⇒ α = −1

The effective length vector describes the effect of polarization to the voltage at the
receiving antenna terminal.

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The effective length vector

Z
-
→ P - →
→ - →- → - ′
h=− · J(r ′ )ej k · r dV
I
V′

▶ connects the reception and transmission properties

▶ works only for far-field problems
▶ contains all information of the radiation pattern and polarization of an antenna

-
→
The vector effective length, h, is a clear manifestation of antenna reciprocity, since it
connects antenna reception and transmission properties.

-
→
The far-field of any antenna can be described using h.

-
→ →- e−jkr
E = jηkI h
4π r

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-
→
Examples: linear polarization (E is the incoming field)

Zero voltage Maximum voltage

- →
→ - -
→ -
→
h·E =0 h∗ × E = 0

-
→
h
-
→
-
→ E
E
-
→
h

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Examples: elliptic polarization

Zero voltage Maximum voltage

- →
→ - -
→ -
→
h·E =0 h∗ × E = 0
-
→ -
→
E E

-
→
-
→ h∗
h

-
→ -
→
h∗ × E = 0

-
→
E

-
→
h

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Example: RHCP antenna receives LHCP incoming plane wave

Two crossed dipoles with 90◦ phase shift

-
→ h →- -
→
The effective length vector: h = √ (j u x + u y )
2
-
→ →- -
→
The incoming field: E = E0 (j u x + u y )
-
→
ux
The voltages at the ports:


 hE0 → - -
→ hE0
Ux = √2 j u x · j u x = − √2

jI -
→
uz 
 hE - - hE0
U y = √ 0 →
 →
uy · uy = √
2 2
I ⇓
U = Ux + Uy = 0
-
→
uy

A circularly polarized antenna is ’blind’ for CP waves

with opposite handedness

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Problem: what would be the optimal polarization for

1. Air surveillance radars?

2. Weather radars?

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Antenna Parameters and Definitions

Received Power and Polarization Matching

The equivalent circuit of a receiving antenna is composed by three elements:

▶ The antenna acts as a voltage generator ZA
- →
→ -
U =h·E
IL
▶ The antenna impedance ZA = RA + jXA
- →
→ -
▶ The load impedance ZL = RL + jXL h·E ZL

The received power by the load depends on

▶ The load impedance ZL
-
→
▶ The polarization and the amplitude of the field E
-
→
▶ The antenna impedance ZA and the length vector h

Reception can be maximized by 1) matching the impedances and 2) the polarizations

of the field and the antenna, and 3) optimizing the field pattern direction
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The received power by the load is

2 - →
→ - 2
1 1 U 1 h·E
PL = RL |IL |2 = RL = RL
2 2 ZA + Z L 2 ZA + Z L
▶ Matched impedances ZL = ZA∗ partly maximize the received power as
- →
→ -
|h · E|2
PL,max =
8RA

Hence, the received power for unmatched impedances can be expanded to

- →
→ - 2 - →
→ -
1 h·E 4RA RL |h · E|2
P L = RL =
2 ZA + Z L |Z + Z |2 8RA
| A {z L }
q

where q is the impedance mismatch factor (efficiency); 0≤q≤1

→- →- - →
→ -
Obviously, the antenna voltage is maximized if |h · E|2 = |h|2 |E|2 corresponding to
optimal polarization and arrival direction of the incoming wave

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Hence, by expanding the received power to the form

- →
→ - →- →- - →
→ -
|h · E|2 |h · E|2 |h|2 |E|2
PL = q =q →- → -
8RA |h|2 |E|2 8RA
| {z }
p

enables one to identify the polarization mismatch factor (efficiency), p: 0≤p≤1

Interpretation for the Polarization Match

- →
→ - - →
→ -
▶ Completely unmatched polarizations a h·E =0 i.e. "h⊥E"
-
→ -
→ - →
→ -
▶ Completely matched polarizations a h∗ × E = 0 i.e. "h ∥ E"

Summary
→- → - - →
→ -
4RA RL |h · E|2 |h|2 |E|2
PL = κ - → -
|ZA + ZL |2 |→h|2 |E|2 8RA

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Effective Aperture

The effective aperture (area) Ae is the ratio of the received power and the incoming
power density in matched conditions
-
→
PL |E|2
Ae = , S=
S 2η0

Consider a radio link whose Antenna 1 radiates the P2r

r G2
power P1t and P2r is received by the other. G1

P1 P2r Ae2 G1
P2r = Ae2 G1 ⇒ =
4π r 2 P1t 4π r 2 P1t

Similarly, if Antenna 2 transmits and 1 receives, the power ratio is

P1r Ae1 G2
=
P2t 4π r 2

A
Reciprocity =⇒ the power ratios are equal =⇒ = same constant for all
G
antennas
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The A/G ratio is easiest to calculate for "impedance and polarisation matched
Hertzian dipole" resulting in

λ2
A= G
4π

Substitution of this to the power ratio equation of a radio link gives the Friis
transmission formula
 2
λ A1 A2
Pr = G1 G2 Pt = Pt
4π r λ2 r 2

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Note 1: On the reciprocity

Consider a radio link whose Antenna 1 transmits and Antenna 2 receives:

|U1 |2
Radiated power: P1 =
8RA1
2
1 1 U1
Received power: P2 = RA2 |I2 |2 = RA2
2 2 Z21

P2 4RA1 RA2
=⇒ =
P1 |Z21 |2

If the transmission direction is reversed one gets

P1 4RA1 RA2
=
P2 |Z12 |2

The power ratios are equal because Z12 = Z21

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Note 2: The relation between gain and effective aperture

Consider a Hertzian dipole. Power to a matched load:

- →
→ - -
→ -
→
|h|2 |E i |2 |E i |2 η|h|2 ηL2
PL = = Ae =⇒ Ae = =
8RA 2η 4RA 4RA
The radiation resistance RA is obtained analysing the dipole radiation:
 
→- e−jkr →- →- η kIL 2 →-
E = jηkIL sin θ u θ =⇒ S= sin2 θ u r
4π r 2 4π r
The total radiation power
Z Zπ
2π  2
1 - →
→ - 8π IL
Prad = RA I 2 = S · u r r 2 sin θ dθ dϕ = η
2 3 2λ
0 0

2π L2
=⇒ RA = η
3 λ2
This gives
3 2 3 2
Ae = λ =⇒ Ae = λ
8π 8π
Ae λ2
Knowing that the gain of Hertzian dipole is 3/2 implies =
G 4π
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