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Sec 1

The document discusses various mathematical concepts including the Division Theorem, Euler's and Fermat's Theorems, and the Extended Euclidean Algorithm, which are essential in modular arithmetic and finding GCDs. It also outlines the structures of groups, rings, integral domains, and fields, detailing their properties and axioms. Additionally, it introduces Euler’s phi function and its applications in cryptography, highlighting the significance of group theory in this field.

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10 views16 pages

Sec 1

The document discusses various mathematical concepts including the Division Theorem, Euler's and Fermat's Theorems, and the Extended Euclidean Algorithm, which are essential in modular arithmetic and finding GCDs. It also outlines the structures of groups, rings, integral domains, and fields, detailing their properties and axioms. Additionally, it introduces Euler’s phi function and its applications in cryptography, highlighting the significance of group theory in this field.

Uploaded by

egyptian gamer
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Sec 1

Eng. Kirolos Romany


Theorem 1: (Division Theorem)
Modules arithmetic
• [a mod N + b mod N] mod N =(a+b) mode N
• Euler's Theorem (30): For any integer n > 1, 𝑎∅(𝑛) ≡ 1 (mod n) for all a ∈
Zₙ*.
• Fermat's Theorem (31): For any prime p, 𝑎𝑝−1 ≡ 1 (mod p) for all a ∈ Zₚ*.
gcd(na,nb) = n gcd(a, b)
Extended Euclidean Algorithm
• the Extended Euclidean Algorithm is used to find the greatest
common divisor (GCD) of two integers and express it as a
linear combination of those integers. It is particularly useful for
finding modular inverses in modular arithmetic.
Example
Replace A % B with its
GCD(A, B) A % B = A + B(-Q)
equation
2 = 482(13) + 1180 + 482(-2) =
(1180, 482) 216 = 1180 + 482(-2)
1180(-29) + 482(71)
2 = 216(-3) + 482 + 216(-2) =
(482, 216) 50 = 482 + 216(-2)
482(13) + 216(-29)
2 = 50 + 216 + 50(-4) = 216(-3)
(216, 50) 16 = 216 + 50(-4)
+ 50(13)
2 = 50 + 16(-3) => Replace 16
(50, 16) 2 = 50 + 16(-3)
with its equation
(16, 2) 0 = 16 + 2(-8)
(2, 0)
Method described in the Chinese Remainder
Step 1: Find n-1 = 2ᵏ * m, where
m is odd. (This means factoring
out all powers of 2 from n-1)
The Miller-
Rabin
Randomized Step 2: Choose a random integer
'a' such that 1 < a < n-1.
Primality
Test
b₀ = aᵐ (mod n)
Step 3: Compute b₁ = b₀² (mod n)
the sequence: ...
bₖ = bₖ₋₁² (mod n)

1______> composite
-1_____> probably prime
•Group: The most basic structure with a single
operation satisfying closure, associativity, identity,
and inverse.
•Abelian Group: A group where the operation is also
commutative (order of operands doesn't matter).
•Ring: Two operations (usually addition and
multiplication) are defined. Addition forms an Abelian
group, and multiplication is associative and
Group distributive over addition.
•Commutative Ring: A ring where multiplication is
theory also commutative.
•Integral Domain: A commutative ring with a
multiplicative identity and no zero divisors (you can't
multiply two non-zero elements and get zero).
•Field: The richest structure. It's an integral domain
where every non-zero element has a multiplicative
inverse. This allows for division.
Group
Ring
• A ring R denoted by {R, +, *}, is a set of elements with two binary
operations, called addition and multiplication, such that for all 1 a, b,
c ∈ R the following axioms are obeyed:
1. Group (G1-G4), Abelian Group (G5).
2. Closure under multiplication (M1): If a, b ∈ R then ab ∈ R
3. Associativity of multiplication (M2): a(bc) = (ab)c for all a, b, c ∈ R
4. Distributive laws (M3):
1. a(b+c) = ab + ac for all a, b, c ∈ R
2. (a+b)c = ac + bc for all a, b, c ∈ R
Ring
• A ring is said to be commutative, if it satisfies the following additional
condition:
• Commutativity of multiplication (M4): ab = ba for all a, b ∈ R
• An integral domain is a commutative ring that obeys the following
axioms:
• Multiplicative identity (M5): There is an element 1 ∈ R such that a1 = 1a = a for
all a ∈ R.
• No zero divisors (M6): If a, b ∈ R and ab = 0, then either a = 0 or b = 0.
Field
• A field F, denoted by {F, +, }, is a set with two binary operations, addition (+) and
multiplication (), satisfying the following axioms:
• Integral Domain (A1-M6): F is an integral domain. This means it satisfies:
• Addition (A1-A5): Closure, Associativity, Identity, Inverse, Commutativity.
• Multiplication (M1-M6): Closure, Associativity, Distributivity, Commutativity,
Multiplicative Identity, No Zero Divisors.
• Multiplicative Inverse (M7): Every non-zero element in F has a multiplicative
inverse.
• ∀ a ∈ F, a ≠ 0, ∃ a⁻¹ ∈ F such that a * a⁻¹ = a⁻¹ * a = 1
Euler’s phi function

Criteria of 'n' Formula


n' is prime Φ(n) = (n-1)

n = p × q, where 'p'
and 'q' are primes Φ(n) = (p-1) × (q-1)

n = a × b, where either

Φ(n)
'a' or 'b' is composite
or both 'a' and 'b' are Φ(n) = n × (1 - 1/p₁) × (1 - 1/p₂) × ... , where p₁, p₂, ... are distinct
composite primes
Using Group theory in cryptography

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