Introduction to Problem Solving
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klopienclaudiaIntroduction to Problem Solving CSC 102
Introduction to Problem Solving - CSC 102
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Introduction to Problem Solving - CSC 102
miva open university
Headquarters
Plot 1059 O.P. Fingesi Road,
Utako, Abuja
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Course Development Team
Content Editor: Jimin Wuese BSc (Edu) Mathematics/Statistics
Language Editor: Udochi Obiukwu MA English Language
Instructional Designer: Dr Yakub Saheed PhD
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Table of Contents
Table of Contents 5
List of Figures 14
List of Tables 14
Study Session 1: Computer Systems 16
Introduction 16
Learning Outcomes (LOs) 16
1.1 Computer Systems 16
1.2 Hardware 17
1.2.1 Primary memory 18
Cache memory: 18
1.2.2 Secondary Memory: 18
Magnetic Storage: 19
Optical Storage: 19
1.3 Computer Software 19
1.3.1 System Software 19
1.3.2 Application software 20
Conclusion 21
Summary 22
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ) 22
Self-Assessment Answers (SAA) 22
Tutor-Marked Assignment 23
References/Further Reading 23
Study Session 2: Computing Environment 25
Introduction 25
Learning Outcomes (LOs) 25
2.1 Computing Environments 25
2.1.1 Personal Computing Environment 26
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2.1.2 Time-Sharing Environment 26
2.1.3 Client/Server Environment 27
2.1.4 Distributed Computing 28
Conclusion 29
Summary 29
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ) 29
Self-Assessment Answers (SAA) 30
Tutor-Marked Assignment 31
References/Further Reading 31
Study Session 3:Computer Languages 33
Introduction 33
Learning Outcomes (LOs) 33
3.1 Computer Languages 33
3.1.1 Machine Language 34
Advantages of machine language 34
Disadvantages of machine languages 34
3.1.2 Symbolic Languages (or) Assembly Language 35
Advantages of Assembly Language 36
Disadvantages of Assembly Language 36
3.1.3 High-Level Languages 36
Advantages of High-level language 37
Disadvantages of High-Level Language 37
3.1.4 Difference between Machine, Assembly, High-Level Languages
38
3.2 Language Translators 38
3.2.1 Comparison between a Compiler and Interpreter 39
Conclusion 40
Summary 40
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ) 40
Self-Assessment Answers (SAA) 41
Tutor-Marked Assignment 42
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References/Further Reading 42
Study Session 4: Procedure (Steps Involved in Problem Solving) 44
Introduction 44
Learning Outcomes (LOs) 45
4.1 Procedure (Steps involved in Problem Solving) 45
4.2 Algorithm 46
4.2.1 Steps involved in algorithm development 47
Example 49
4.2.2 Algorithms for Simple Problem 49
Conclusion 54
Summary 54
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ) 55
Self-Assessment Answers (SAA) 55
Tutor-Marked Assignment 59
References/Further Reading 59
Study Session 5: Flowchart 61
Introduction 61
Learning Outcomes (LOs) 61
5.1 Flowchart 62
5.1.1 Advantages of Flowcharts 62
5.1.2 Differences between Algorithm and Flowchart 63
5.1.3 Symbols used in a flowchart 63
5.1.4 Simple Problems solved using FlowChart 66
Pseudocode 70
Conclusion 71
Summary 71
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ) 71
Self-Assessment Answers (SAA) 72
Tutor-Marked Assignment 74
References/Further Reading 74
Study Session 6: Features of C 76
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Introduction 76
Learning Outcomes (LOs) 76
6.1 Features of C language 77
6.2 Character Set 77
6.3 Structure of a C-Program 79
6.4 Data types in C language. 81
6.4.1 Basic Data Types 82
6.5 Tokens in C 83
6.5.1 Constant/Literals: 84
Numeric Constants: 84
Integer Constants 84
A decimal integer constant is characterised by the
following properties: 85
An octal integer constant is characterised by the following
properties: 85
An hexadecimal integer constant is characterised by the
following properties: 86
Real Constants 87
Fractional Form 87
Exponential Form 88
Character Constants 90
String Constants 90
6.5.2 Reserved Words/Keywords 91
6.5.3 Delimiters 92
6.5.4 Variables / Identifiers 92
Rules for naming a variable:- 93
Declaration of variables: 93
6.6 Operators 93
6.6.1 Arithmetic Operators 94
Operator Meaning 94
6.6.2 Relational Operators 95
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Operator Meaning 95
Examples : 95
6.6.3 Logical Operators 96
Logical And (&&): 96
Example: 97
Logical OR: 97
Example: 97
Logical NOT: 98
Example: 98
6.6.4 Assignment Operator 98
Example: 99
Multiple assignment 99
Example: 99
Example: 100
6.6.5 Increment & Decrement Operator 100
Example 1: 101
Example 2: 101
6.6.6 Conditional operator (or) Ternary operator (? :) 101
Example: 102
6.6.7 Bit wise Operator 102
The logical Bitwise Operator 103
Example: 104
The Bitwise shift Operations: 104
Example: 105
Example: 105
Bit wise complement: 106
6.6.8 Comma Operator 106
Example : 106
Size of operator: 106
Example : 107
Conclusion 107
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Summary 107
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ) 108
Self-Assessment Answers (SAA) 108
Tutor-Marked Assignment 111
References/Further Reading 112
Study Session 7: Expressions in C-Language 114
Introduction 114
Learning Outcomes (LOs) 114
7.1 Expression 114
Example: 114
7.2 Evaluation Procedure 115
7.3 Statements 115
7.3.1 Data Input & Output 115
getchar() 116
putchar() 117
gets() 117
puts() 117
printf() 118
Example: 118
Example: 119
scanf() 119
Example: 120
7.4 Assignment Statement 121
Conclusion 121
Summary 121
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ) 122
Self-Assessment Answers (SAA) 122
Tutor-Marked Assignment 124
References/Further Reading 124
Study Session 8: Control Structure 126
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Introduction 126
Learning Outcomes (LOs) 126
8.1 Conditional Statements 127
8.1.1 if statement 127
8.1.2 if-else statements 128
8.1.3 Nested else-if statements 129
8.1.4 Nested if-else statement 130
8.1.5 Switch statement 132
Example 1: 133
Example 2: 134
Conclusion 134
Summary 135
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ) 135
Self-Assessment Answers (SAA) 136
Tutor-Marked Assignment 138
References/Further Reading 139
Study Session 9: Looping Structures 141
Introduction 141
Learning Outcomes (LOs) 141
9.1 Loop Statement 141
9.1.1 While statement 142
Example: 142
9.1.2 do-while statement 143
Example: 143
9.1.3 for statement 144
Format - I 146
Example 1 146
Format - II 146
Example 2 146
Format - III 147
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Example 3 147
9.2 Nested Looping Statements 148
9.2.1 Definition of Nesting 148
9.3 Multi-Objective Loops 149
9.3.1 Break Statement 149
Example 149
9.3.2 The Continue Statement 150
Example 150
9.4 Differences between Break and Continue statements 151
9.5 Unconditional Branching (goto Statement) 153
Example 1 153
Practice Programs 155
Conclusion 157
Summary 157
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ) 158
Self-Assessment Answers (SAA) 158
Tutor-Marked Assignment 163
References/Further Reading 163
Study Session 10: Functions in C 165
Introduction 165
Learning Outcomes (LOs) 166
10.1 Definition of Function 166
10.1.1 Return Type 167
Example 168
10.1.2 Function Name 168
Example 168
Formal arguments 169
Example 169
10.1.3 Function Body 169
Example 170
10.1.4 The Return Statement 171
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10.2 Programs using function Call Techniques 171
10.3 Differences between Functions and Procedures 174
10.4 Advantages of Function 175
10.5 Advanced Features of Functions 176
10.5.1 Function Prototypes 176
Functions with no arguments and no return value 177
Example: 177
Function with arguments and no return value 178
Example 178
Function with arguments and return value 179
Example: 179
Actual and Formal Parameters (or) Arguments 180
Example 181
Local and Global variables: 182
10.5.2 Calling functions by value or by reference 183
Call by value: 184
Example 184
Call by Reference: 186
Example 186
10.5.3 Recursion 188
Examples on Recursion 189
Conclusion 192
Summary 192
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ) 192
Self-Assessment Answers (SAA) 193
Tutor-Marked Assignment 198
References/Further Reading 198
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List of Figures
Figure 1.1: Block diagram showing the classification of computer hardware
Figure 1.2 : Relationship between system and application software.
Figure 2.1: Diagram of a Desktop computer
Figure 2.2: Diagram showing a time sharing environment.
Figure 2.3 : Diagram of client-server processing.
Figure 2.4: Distributed computing.
Figure 3.1: Addition of numbers in machine language.
Figure 3.2: Addition of two numbers in Assembly language.
Figure 3.3: Examples of high-level programming language.
Figure 5.1: A flowchart to find the roots of a quadratic equation.
Figure 5.2: A flowchart for the biggest of three numbers.
Figure 5.3: A flowchart to add from 1-100.
Figure 5.4: A flowchart to find the factorial of a number.
Figure 5.5: A flowchart for a telephone call.
Figure 5.6: A flowchart to calculate the bonus of a staff.
List of Tables
Table 3.1: Difference between computer languages.
Table 3.2: Comparison of a compiler and interpreter.
Table 5.1: Differences between algorithm and flowchart.
Table 6.1: Showing characters with backslash.
Table 6.2: Mantissa and Exponent of two numbers.
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Table 7.1 : Input and Output statements in C.
Table 9.1: Differences between break and continue.
Table 10.1: Difference between procedures and functions.
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Study Session 1: Computer Systems
Introduction
A computer system is a basic, complete, and functional hardware and
software configuration that includes everything necessary to implement
computing functionality. This is the working definition of the computer
system as we know it, but it has undergone many formal modifications
over the past few decades.
Learning Outcomes (LOs)
By the end of this session, you should be able to:
1.1 Explain the Computer System
1.2 Explain the Hardware of a system and its example
1.3 Differentiate between primary and cache memory.
1.4 Understand secondary memory and its examples
1.5 Differentiate between system software and application
software.
1.1 Computer Systems
A computer is an electronic device that stores, manipulates, and retrieves
data. We can also refer to a computer as a device that computes the
information supplied to it and generates data. A system is a group of
several objects connected by a process. For Example: the educational
system involves teachers, students, and objects. A teacher teaches a
subject to students, i.e., teaching is a process. Similarly, a computer
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system can have objects and processes. The following are the objects of
a computer system:
a) User (A person who uses the computer)
b) Hardware
c) Software
1.2 Hardware
The hardware of a computer system can be referred to as anything that
we can touch and feel. Example: keyboard and mouse. The hardware of a
computer system can be classified as Input Devices(I/P), Central
Processing Unit (CPU), Output Devices(O/P) as you will see in figure 1.1
below:
Figure 1.1: Block diagram showing the classification of computer hardware
ALU: It performs the Arithmetic and Logical Operations such as +,-,*,/
(Arithmetic Operators) &&, || ( Logical Operators)
CU: The control unit is in charge of overseeing every operation, including
storing, computing, and retrieving the data.
MU: The memory unit is used for storing the data. The memory unit is
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classified into two types. They are:
● Primary memory.
● Secondary memory.
1.2.1 Primary memory
The following are the types of memories that are treated as primary ROM:
It represents Read Only Memory that stores data and instructions even
when the computer is turned off. The contents of the ROM cannot be
modified once they are written. It is used to store BIOS information. RAM:
It represents Random Access Memory that stores data and instructions
when the computer is turned on. The contents of the RAM can be
modified any number of times by instructions. It is used to store the
programs under execution.
Cache memory:
Cache memory is a small, fast memory located between the CPU and main
memory. It stores frequently accessed data for faster retrieval. Using a
hierarchical structure with multiple levels (L1, L2, L3), the CPU checks the
cache for data before accessing the main memory. Cache management
aims to maximise hits and minimise misses. Overall, cache memory
reduces memory access latency and improves system performance.
1.2.2 Secondary Memory:
This is also known as auxiliary or external memory and refers to storage
devices that can store data even without a constant connection to the
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computer. The following are classified as types of secondary memory:
Magnetic Storage:
The magnetic storage devices store information that can be read, erased,
and rewritten a number of times. Example: Floppy Disks, Hard Disks,
Magnetic Tapes
Optical Storage:
Optical storage devices that use laser beams to read and write stored
data. Example: CD (Compact Disk), DVD (Digital Versatile Disk).
1.3 Computer Software
The software of a computer system refers to the programs, data, and
instructions that tell a computer what to do. Example: OS (Operating
Systems), web browsers, and media players. Computer software is divided
into two broad categories: System software and Application software.
System software manages the computer's resources. It provides the
interface between the hardware and the users. Application software, on
the other hand, is directly responsible for helping users solve their
problems.
1.3.1 System Software
System software consists of programs that manage the hardware
resources of a computer and perform required information processing
tasks. These programs are divided into three classes: the operating
system, system support, and system development.
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The operating system provides services such as a user interface, file and
database access, and interfaces to communication systems such as
Internet protocols. The primary purpose of this software is to keep the
system operating in an efficient manner while allowing users access to it.
System support software provides system utilities and other operating
services. Examples of system utilities are sort programs and disk format
programs. Operating services consist of programs that provide
performance statistics for the operational staff and security monitors to
protect the system and data. The last system software category, system
development software, includes language translators that convert
programs into machine language for execution, debugging tools to
ensure that the programs are error free and computer –assisted software
engineering (CASE) systems.
1.3.2 Application software
Application software is broken into two classes: general-purpose
software and application – specific software. General purpose software
is purchased from a software developer and can be used for more than
one application. Examples of general-purpose software include word
processors, database management systems, and computer aided design
systems. They are labelled general purpose because they can solve a
variety of user computing problems. Application –specific software can
be used only for its intended purpose. Examples of application-specific
software include a general ledger system that accountants use and a
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material requirement planning system that a manufacturing company
uses. They can be used only for the task for which they were designed;
they cannot be used for other generalised tasks. The relationship
between system and application software is shown in figure 1.2; below In
this figure, each circle represents an interface point. The inner core is
hardware. The user is represented by the outer layer. To work with the
system, the typical user uses some form of application software. The
application software in turn interacts with the operating system, which is
part of the system software layer. The system software provides direct
interaction with the hardware. The opening at the bottom of figure 1.2 is
the path followed by the user, who interacts directly with the operating
system when necessary.
Figure 1.2 : Relationship between system and application software.
Conclusion
This unit introduced the students to the computer system, the hardware
of a system, secondary storage management, the computer system, and
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primary memory. The application software and system software were also
examined in this unit.
Summary
In this session, you have learned to:
1. Explain the Computer System
2. Explain the Hardware of a system and its example
3. Differentiate between primary and cache memory.
4. Understand secondary memory and its examples.
5. Differentiate between system software and application software.
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ)
SAQ 1.1. What do you understand to be the difference between
system software and application software? (Tests learning
outcome 1.5)
SAQ 1.2. Difference between primary and secondary memory with
examples (Tests learning outcomes 1.2 and 1.4)
SAQ 1.3. What is cache memory? (Tests learning outcome 1.3)
Self-Assessment Answers (SAA)
SAA 1.1. System software manages and controls computer
hardware, providing a platform for running applications and
facilitating interaction with the hardware. It includes operating
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systems, device drivers, and utility programs. Application software,
on the other hand, is designed for specific tasks or applications,
such as word processors or web browsers. It is user-focused and
allows users to accomplish specific tasks or solve particular
problems.
SAA 1.2. Primary memory, such as RAM, is volatile and provides
temporary storage for data and instructions during computer
operation. Examples include RAM modules in computers and
smartphones. Secondary memory, like hard disk drives (HDDs) and
solid-state drives (SSDs), is non-volatile and offers long-term
storage for programs and files even when the computer is turned
off.
SAA 1.3. Cache memory is a small, high-speed memory that stores
frequently accessed data and instructions to improve the overall
performance of a computer system.
Tutor-Marked Assignment
1. Differentiate between application software and system software
2. State three examples of secondary memory.
3. What is the advantage of cache memory?
References/Further Reading
Iverson, K. E. (1962, May). A programming language. In Proceedings of the
May 1-3, 1962, spring joint computer conference (pp. 345-351).
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Shieber, S. (1984). The design of a computer language for linguistic
information. In Proceedings of the Tenth International Conference on
Computational Linguistics Association for Computational Linguistics.
Bell, Eona, and David Potter, “Computer Applications for People with
Autism,” 2001.
http://www.nas.org.uk/nas/jsp/polopoly.jsp?d=303a=3276.
Pierce, B. C. (2002). Types and programming languages. MIT press.
Brain, Marshall, “How computer mice work,” 2004.
http://www.howstuffworks.com/
mouse.htm.
Da Cruz, Frank, “Herman Hollerith,” 2004.
http://www.columbia.edu/acis/history/
hollerith.html.
Dowler, Mike, “Beginners Guides: Legally Copying Software and Music,” PC
Stats,
2003. http://www.pcstats.com/articleview.cfm?articleid=868.
Fernandes, Luis, “A Brief History of the Abacus,” 2003.
http://www.ee.ryerson.ca:8080/
~elf/abacus/history.html.
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Study Session 2: Computing Environment
Introduction
A computer system uses many devices, arranged in different ways to
solve many problems. This constitutes a computing environment where
many computers are used to process and exchange information to
handle multiple issues. In computers, there are different types of
computing technologies, and all are different from each other. By using
this, we are finding output based on the input given by the user. In a
computing environment, the user can use a particular computing
technology, which is responsible for all the types of input and output
given by the computer.
Learning Outcomes (LOs)
By the end of this session, you should be able to:
2.1. Explain the Computing environments
2.2. Describe the Personal Computing Environment
2.3. Understand Time-Sharing Environment
2.4. Explain the Client/Server Environment
2.5. Understand the Distributed Computing
2.1 Computing Environments
The word compute is used to refer to the process of converting
information into data. The advent of several new kinds of computers
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created a need for different computing environments. The following are
the different kinds of computing environments available:
1. Personal Computing Environment
2. Time Sharing Environment
3. Client/Server Environment
4. Distributed Computing Environment
2.1.1 Personal Computing Environment
In 1971, Mercian E. Hoff, working for INTEL, combined the basic elements of
the central processing unit into the microprocessor. If we are using a
personal computer, then all the computer hardware components are tied
together. This kind of computing is used to satisfy the needs of a single
user, who uses the computer for personal tasks. Ex: Personal Computer
as you can see in figure 2.1:
Figure 2.1: Diagram of a Desktop computer
2.1.2 Time-Sharing Environment
The concept of time-sharing computing is to share the processing of the
computer based on the criteria of time. In this environment, all the
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computing must be done by the central computer.
The central computer handles all of the processing. The computers that
ask for processing are only dumb terminals. Figure 2.2 below shows a time
sharing environment:
Figure 2.2: Diagram showing a time sharing environment
2.1.3 Client/Server Environment
Client/Server computing involves a relationship between two machines. A
client machine is the one that requests processing. The server machine is
the one that offers the processing. Hence, the client is capable enough to
do the processing. A portion of processing is done by the client, and the
core (important) processing is done by the server. Figure 2.3 shows a
sample of a client-server environment.
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Figure 2.3 : Diagram of client-server processing.
2.1.4 Distributed Computing
A distributed computing environment provides seamless integration of
computing functions between different servers and clients. A client is not
just a requestor for processing information from the server. The client
also has the capability to process information. All the machines,
Clients/Servers share the processing task. Figure 2.4 shows distributed
computing.
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Figure 2.4: Distributed computing
Example: Ebay on Internet
Conclusion
This session introduced the students to computing environments,
personal computing environments, and time-sharing environments. The
client server environment and distributed computing were also examined
in this session.
Summary
In this session, you have learned to:
1. Explain the Computing environments
2. Describe the Personal Computing Environment
3. Understand Time-Sharing Environment
4. Explain the Client/Server Environment
5. Understand the Distributed Computing
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ)
SAQ 2.1. To the best of your understanding, explain a computing
environment. (Tests learning outcome 2.1)
SAQ 2.2. Define distributed computing with real-life examples.
(Tests learning outcome 2.5)
SAQ 2.3. Difference between personal computing environment and
time-sharing environment. (Tests learning outcomes 2.2 and 2.3)
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Self-Assessment Answers (SAA)
SAA 2.1. A computing environment is the infrastructure where
computing activities occur. It includes hardware, software,
networks, and peripherals. The environment can vary based on
personal, enterprise, or cloud computing needs. It encompasses
configuration, management, and security measures. The
computing environment enables data processing, communication,
and the delivery of computing services.
SAA 2.2. Distributed computing refers to the use of multiple
computers or devices connected over a network to work together
on a task or solve a problem. Rather than relying on a single
powerful machine, distributed computing leverages the collective
resources and processing power of multiple devices to achieve
computational goals. This approach allows for improved
performance, scalability, fault-tolerance, and resource utilisation.
Some real-life examples of distributed computing are Search
Engines and Content Delivery Networks.
SAA 2.3. Personal computing environments offer dedicated
resources and local processing, providing individual users with
autonomy and control over their computing experience.
Time-sharing environments, on the other hand, involve resource
sharing and remote access, enabling multiple users to share a
central system and perform tasks concurrently in a time-division
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manner.
Tutor-Marked Assignment
1. Discuss the computing system environment.
2. Explain the client/Server environment in a great detail
References/Further Reading
Iverson, K. E. (1962, May). A programming language. In Proceedings of the
May 1-3, 1962, spring joint computer conference (pp. 345-351).
Shieber, S. (1984). The design of a computer language for linguistic
information. In Proceedings of the Tenth International Conference on
Computational Linguistics Association for Computational Linguistics
Bell, Eona, and David Potter, “Computer Applications for People with
Autism,” 2001.
http://www.nas.org.uk/nas/jsp/polopoly.jsp?d=303a=3276.
Pierce, B. C. (2002). Types and programming languages. MIT Press
Brain, Marshall, “How computer mice work,” 2004.
http://www.howstuffworks.com/
mouse.htm.
Da Cruz, Frank, “Herman Hollerith,” 2004.
http://www.columbia.edu/acis/history/
hollerith.html.
Dowler, Mike, “Beginners Guides: Legally Copying Software and Music,” PC
Stats,
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2003. http://www.pcstats.com/articleview.cfm?articleid=868.
Fernandes, Luis, “A Brief History of the Abacus,” 2003.
http://www.ee.ryerson.ca:8080/
~elf/abacus/history.html.
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Study Session 3:Computer Languages
Introduction
A computer language is a collection of instructions used to develop
computer programs. This is a summary of programming languages. The
primary objective is human-computer interaction. The purpose of
computer programming languages is to convey instructions to a
computer. Syntactic and semantic rules determine the meaning of each
programming language construct.
Learning Outcomes (LOs)
By the end of this session, you should be able to:
3.1. Explain the computer languages
3.2. Understand the machine language and it advantages
3.3. Differentiate between the assembly language and high-level
language
3.4. Describe the merit and demerit of symbolic languages
3.5. Understand the Language translator
3.6. State the comparison between a Compiler and Interpreter
3.1 Computer Languages
A computer language is required to write a program (which tells the
computer what to do). Over the years, computer languages have evolved
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from machine languages to natural languages. The following is the
summary of computer languages
1940’s -- Machine
Languages
1950’s -- Symbolic
Languages
1960’s -- High Level
Languages
3.1.1 Machine Language
In the earliest days of computers, the only programming languages
available were machine languages. Each computer has its own machine
language, which is made up of streams of 0s and 1s. The instructions in
machine language must be in streams of 0s and 1s. These are known as
binary digits. These are so named as the machine can directly understand
the programs
Advantages of machine language
1. High speed execution
2. The computer can understand instruction immediately
3. No translation is needed.
Disadvantages of machine languages
1. Machine dependent
2. Programming is very difficult
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3. Difficult to understand
4. Difficult to write bug free programs
5. Difficult to isolate an error
Figure 3.1 shows an example of two numbers using machine language:
Figure 3.1: Addition of numbers in machine language
3.1.2 Symbolic Languages (or) Assembly Language
In the early 1950’s Admiral Grace Hopper, a mathematician and naval
officer, developed the concept of a special computer program that would
convert programs into machine language. These early programming
languages simply mirrored the machine languages, using symbols or
mnemonics to represent the various language instructions. These
languages were known as symbolic languages. Because a computer does
not understand symbolic language, it must be translated into machine
language. A special program called an Assembler translates symbolic
code into the machine language. Hence, they are called assembly
language.
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Advantages of Assembly Language
1. Easy to understand and use
2. Easy to modify and isolate error
3. High efficiency
4. More control on hardware
Disadvantages of Assembly Language
1. Machine Dependent Language
2. Requires translator
3. Difficult to learn and write programs
4. Slow development time
5. Less efficient
Figure 3.2 shows an example of the addition of two numbers using
assembly language.
Figure 3.2: Addition of two numbers in Assembly language
3.1.3 High-Level Languages
The symbolic languages greatly improved programming efficiency, but
they still required programmers to concentrate on the hardware that they
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were using. Working with symbolic languages was also very tedious
because each machine instruction had to be individually coded. The
desire to improve programmer efficiency and shift the focus from the
computer to the problems being solved led to the development of
high-level languages. High-level languages are portable to many different
computers, allowing the programmer to concentrate on the application
problem at hand rather than the intricacies of the computer.
Figure 3.3 below shows examples of high-level programming languages.
Figure 3.3: Examples of high-level programming language
Advantages of High-level language
1. Easy to write and understand
2. Easy to isolate an error
3. Machine independent language
4. Easy to maintain
5. Better readability
6. Low Development cost
7. Easier to document
8. Portable
Disadvantages of High-Level Language
1. Needs translator
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2. Requires high execution time
3. Poor control on hardware
4. Less efficient
Example: Sample of a code in C language
#include<stdio.h>
void main() {
int a, b, c; scanf("%d%d%",&a,&b); c=a+b; printf("%d",c); }
3.1.4 Difference between Machine, Assembly, High-Level Languages
Table 3.1 shows the difference between machine, assembly and high-level
languages
Table 3.1: Differences between Computer Languages
3.2 Language Translators
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These are the programs that are used for converting the programs in one
language into machine language, so that they can be executed by the
computer.
1) Compiler: It is a program which is used to convert the high-level
language programs into machine language
2) Assembler: It is a program which is used to convert the assembly level
language programs into machine language
3) Interpreter: It is a program, it takes one statement of a high-level
language program, translates it into machine language instruction and
then immediately executes the resulting machine language instruction
and soon.
3.2.1 Comparison between a Compiler and Interpreter
Table 3.2: Comparison of a compiler and interpreter.
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Conclusion
This session explained computer languages and it’s main types, it further
explained their advantages and disadvantages, so a programmer/student
will know which one best fits their needs. It ended the session talking
about a language translator's ability to change one type of language into
another.
Summary
In this session, you have learned to:
3.1.Explain the computer languages
3.2. Understand the machine language and it advantages
3.3. Differentiate between the assembly language and high-level
language
3.4. Describe the merit and demerit of symbolic languages
3.5. Understand the Language translator
3.6. State the comparison between a Compiler and Interpreter
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ)
SAQ 3.1 Importance of a language translator (Tests learning outcome
3.5)
SAQ 3.2 What is high-level language and mention examples (Tests
learning outcome 3.3)
SAQ 3.3 Mention programming languages that use a compiler (Tests
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learning outcome 3.6)
SAQ 3.4 What is the difference between a compiler and interpreter
(Tests learning outcome 3.6)
Self-Assessment Answers (SAA)
SAA 3.1. Language translators are essential for executing
high-level programming code on computer hardware. They enable
platform independence, optimise code performance, detect errors,
provide advanced language features, and enhance software
portability and maintainability. Without language translators,
programming languages would remain abstract and inaccessible to
computer systems, hindering software development and execution.
SAA 3.2. A high-level language is a programming language that is
designed to be easily understood and written by humans. It
provides a level of abstraction from the underlying hardware,
allowing programmers to write code in a more intuitive and readable
manner compared to low-level languages. High-level languages are
closer to human languages and often have built-in functions and
libraries that simplify complex tasks. Examples of high-level
programming languages include: Python, Java,JavaScript, C#, and
Ruby.
SAA 3.3. The following are programming languages that use a
compiler: C, C++, C#, Java, Swift, and Go.
SAA 3.4. A compiler translates the entire code into machine code
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before execution, resulting in faster execution but requiring a
separate compilation step. An interpreter, on the other hand,
directly executes the code line by line, providing flexibility but
typically with slower execution.
Tutor-Marked Assignment
1. Discuss the differences between machine language and assembly
language
2. Describe four merits of symbolic language
3. What is the significance of computer language?
4. State the advantages and disadvantages of multiprogramming.
5. Differentiate between a compiler and interpreter
References/Further Reading
Iverson, K. E. (1962, May). A programming language. In Proceedings of the
May 1-3, 1962, spring joint computer conference (pp. 345-351).
Shieber, S. (1984). The design of a computer language for linguistic
information. In Proceedings of the Tenth International Conference on
Computational Linguistics Association for Computational Linguistics.
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Bell, Eona, and David Potter, “Computer Applications for People with
Autism,” 2001.
http://www.nas.org.uk/nas/jsp/polopoly.jsp?d=303a=3276.
Pierce, B. C. (2002). Types and programming languages. MIT press.
Brain, Marshall, “How computer mice work,” 2004.
http://www.howstuffworks.com/
mouse.htm.
Da Cruz, Frank, “Herman Hollerith,” 2004.
http://www.columbia.edu/acis/history/
hollerith.html.
Dowler, Mike, “Beginners Guides: Legally Copying Software and Music,” PC
Stats,
2003. http://www.pcstats.com/articleview.cfm?articleid=868.
Fernandes, Luis, “A Brief History of the Abacus,” 2003.
http://www.ee.ryerson.ca:8080/
~elf/abacus/history.html.
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Study Session 4: Procedure (Steps Involved in Problem Solving)
Introduction
A computer is a very powerful and versatile machine capable of
performing a multitude of different tasks, yet it has no intelligence or
thinking power. The intelligence Quotient (I.Q) of a computer is zero. A
computer performs many tasks exactly in the same manner as it is told
to. This places responsibility on the user to instruct the computer in a
correct and precise manner, so that the machine is able to perform the
required job in a proper way. A wrong or ambiguous instruction may
sometimes prove disastrous. In order to instruct a computer correctly,
the user must have a clear understanding of the problem to be solved.
Apart from this, he should be able to develop a method, in the form of a
series of sequential steps, to solve it. Once the problem is well-defined
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and a method of solving it is developed, instructing the computer to
solve the problem becomes a relatively easier task. Thus, before
attempting to write a computer program to solve a given problem. It is
necessary to formulate or define the problem in a precise manner. Once
the problem is defined, the steps required to solve it, must be stated
clearly in the required order.
Learning Outcomes (LOs)
By the end of this session, you should be able to:
4.1.Understand the concept of Problem solving
4.2. Understand steps involved in algorithm development
4.3. Understand the concept of Algorithm
4.4. Develop Algorithm for simple problem
4.1 Procedure (Steps involved in Problem Solving)
A computer cannot solve a problem on its own. One has to provide step
by step solutions of the problem to the computer. In fact, the task of
problem solving is not that of the computer. It is the programmer who
has to write down the solution to the problem in terms of simple
operations which the computer can understand and execute. In order
to solve a problem by the computer, one has to pass through certain
stages or steps. They are:
1. Understanding the problem: Here we try to understand the
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problem to be solved. Before the next stage or step, we
should be absolutely sure about the objectives of the given
problem.
2. Analysing the problem: After understanding thoroughly the
problem to be solved, we look at different ways of solving
the problem and evaluate each of these methods. The idea
here is to search for an appropriate solution to the problem
under consideration. The end result of this stage is a broad
overview of the sequence of operations that are to be
carried out to solve the given problem.
3. Developing the solution: Here the overview of the sequence
of operations that was the result of the analysis stage is
expanded to form a detailed step by step solution to the
problem under consideration.
4. Coding and implementation: The last stage of the problem
solving is the conversion of the detailed sequence of
operations into a language that the computer can
understand. Here each step is converted to its equivalent
instruction or instructions in the computer language that
has been chosen for the implantation.
4.2 Algorithm
A set of sequential steps usually written in ordinary language to solve
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a given problem is called Algorithm. It may be possible to solve the
problem in more than one way, resulting in more than one algorithm.
The choice of various algorithms depends on the factors like reliability,
accuracy and ease to modify. The most important factor in the choice
of algorithm is the time requirement to execute it, after writing code in
High-level language with the help of a computer. The algorithm which
will need the least time when executed is considered the best.
4.2.1 Steps involved in algorithm development
An algorithm can be defined as “a complete, unambiguous, finite
number of logical steps for solving a specific problem “
Step 1. Identification of input: For an algorithm, there
are quantities to be supplied called input and these are fed
externally. The input is to be identified first for any
specified problem.
Step 2: Identification of output: From an algorithm, at
least one quantity is produced, called for any specified
problem.
Step 3 : Identification the processing operations : All
the calculations to be performed in order to lead to output
from the input are to be identified in an orderly manner.
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Step 4 : Processing Definiteness : The instructions
composing the algorithm must be clear and there should
not be any ambiguity in them.
Step 5 : Processing Finiteness : If we go through the
algorithm, then for all cases, the algorithm should
terminate after a finite number of steps.
Step 6: Possessing Effectiveness : The instructions in
the algorithm must be sufficiently basic that they can be
easily carried out in practice.
An algorithm must possess the following properties:
1. Finiteness: An algorithm must terminate in a finite
number of steps
2. Definiteness: Each step of the algorithm must
be precisely and unambiguously stated
3. Effectiveness: Each step must be effective, in
the sense that it should be primitive easily convert
able into program statement) can be performed
exactly in a finite amount of time.
4. Generality: The algorithm must be complete in
itself so that it can be used to solve problems of a
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specific type for any input data.
5. Input/output: Each algorithm must take zero,
one or more quantities as input data produce one or
more output values. An algorithm can be written in
English like sentences or in any standard
representation sometimes, algorithm written in
English like languages are called Pseudo Code
Example
1. Suppose we want to find the average of three
numbers, the algorithm is as follows:
Step 1 Read the numbers a, b, c
Step 2 Compute the sum of a, b and c
Step 3 Divide the sum by 3
Step 4 Store the result in variable d
Step 5 Print the value of d
Step 6 End of the program
4.2.2 Algorithms for Simple Problem
Write an algorithm for the following:
1. Write an algorithm to calculate the simple interest
using the formula. Simple interest = P*N* R/100
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Where P is the principal amount, N is the number of years, and R is
the rate of interest:
Step 1: Read the three input
quantities, P, N, and R.
Step 2 : Calculate simple interest as
Simple interest = P* N*
R/100
Step 3: Print simple
interest.
Step 4: Stop.
2.Area of a Triangle: Write an algorithm to find the area of the
triangle.
Let b and c be the sides of the triangle ABC and A is the
included angle between the given sides.
Step 1: Input the given elements of the triangle, namely
sides b, c, and the angle between the sides A.
Step 2: Area = (1/2) *b*C* sin A
Step 3: Output the Area
Step 4: Stop.
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3. Write an algorithm to find the largest of
three numbers X, Y,Z.
Step 1: Read the numbers X, Y, and Z.
Step 2: if (X > Y)
Big = X
else BIG = Y
Step 3 : if (BIG < Z)
Step 4: Big = Z
Step 5: Print the largest number i.e. Big
Step 6: Stop
4. Write down an algorithm to find the largest data
value of a set of given data values
Algorithm for the largest of all data values:
Step 1: LARGE ← 0
Step 2: read NUM
Step 3: While NUM > = 0 do
3.1 if NUM > LARGE
3.1.1 then
3.1.1.1 LARGE ← NUM
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3.2. read NUM
Step 4: Write “largest data value is”, LARGE
Step 5: end.
5. Write an algorithm which will test whether a
given integer value is prime or not.
Algorithm for prime number testing:
Step 1: M ← 2
Step 2: read N
Step 3: MAX ← SQRT (N)
Step 4: While M < = MAX do
4.1 if (M* (N/M) = N
4.1.1 then
4.1.1.1 go to step 7
4.2. M ← M + 1
Step 5: Write “number is
prime”
Step 6: go to step 8
Step 7: Write “number is not a prime”
Step 8: end
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6. Write algorithm to find the factorial of a given number N
Step 1: PROD ← 1
Step 2: I ← 0
Step 3: read N
Step 4: While I < N do
4.1 I ← I + 1
4.2. PROD ← PROD* I
Step 5: Write “Factorial of”, N, “is”, PROD
Step 6: end.
7. Write an algorithm to find the sum of given data
values until a negative value is entered.
Algorithm Find – Sum
Step 1: SUM ← 0
Step 2: I ← 0
Step 3: read NEW VALUE
Step 4: While NEW VALUE < = 0 do
4.1 SUM ← SUM + NEW VALUE
4.2 1 ← I + 1
4.3 read NEW VALUE
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Step 5: Write “Sum of”, I, “data value is, “SUM
Step 6: END
8. Write an algorithm to calculate the perimeter and
area of a rectangle. Given its length and width.
Step 1: Read length of the rectangle.
Step 2: Read width of the rectangle.
Step 3: Calculate perimeter of the rectangle using the
formula perimeter = 2* (length + width)
Step 4: Calculate area of the rectangle using the formula area =
length*width
Step 5: Print perimeter.
Step 6: Print area.
Step 7: Stop.
Conclusion
This session introduced the students to the concept of problem solving,
the steps involved in algorithm development, and the concept of
algorithms. Several examples of algorithm for simple problems were also
examined in this session.
Summary
In this session, you have learned to:
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1. Understand the concept of Problem solving
2. Understand steps involved in algorithm development
3.Understand the concept of Algorithm
4.Develop Algorithm for simple problem
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ)
SAQ4.1. What is the significance of understanding the steps
involved in algorithm development? (Tests learning outcome 4.2)
SAQ4.2. What are the advantages of algorithms? (Tests learning
outcome 4.3)
SAQ4.3. Write an algorithm to find the factorial of a given number.
(Tests learning outcome 4.4)
SAQ4.4. Write an algorithm to calculate the sum of numbers from 1
to N. (Tests learning outcome 4.4)
Self-Assessment Answers (SAA)
SAA4.1. Understanding the steps helps in structuring and
organising the problem-solving process, ensuring clarity and
effectiveness in finding solutions.
SAA4.2. The following are advantages of algorithm:
● Clarity and organisation: Algorithms provide a systematic and
structured approach to problem-solving, making it easier to
understand and communicate the solution.
● Efficiency: Well-designed algorithms can optimise the use of
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computational resources, such as time and memory, leading
to more efficient solutions.
● Reusability: Algorithms can be reused for similar problem
instances or adapted to solve related problems, saving time
and effort in the development process.
● Scalability: Algorithms can handle larger problem sizes or
datasets by efficiently scaling their execution, allowing them
to solve complex problems.
● Modifiability: Algorithms can be modified and improved based
on changing requirements or constraints, providing flexibility
in addressing evolving problem scenarios.
SAA4.3. Algorithm:
Step 1: Read the input number N.
Step 2: Initialise a variable PROD as 1.
Step 3: Initialise a variable I as 1.
Step 4: While I is less than or equal to N, do steps 4.1 and 4.2.
4.1: Multiply PROD by I.
4.2: Increment I by 1.
Step 5: Print the factorial value stored in PROD.
Step 6: End.
Example:
Let's say we want to find the factorial of 5.
Input: N = 5
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Algorithm execution:
Step 1: N = 5
Step 2: PROD = 1
Step 3: I = 1
Step 4:
Iteration 1: PROD = PROD * I = 1 * 1 = 1, I = 2
Iteration 2: PROD = PROD * I = 1 * 2 = 2, I = 3
Iteration 3: PROD = PROD * I = 2 * 3 = 6, I = 4
Iteration 4: PROD = PROD * I = 6 * 4 = 24, I = 5
Step 5: Print PROD = 24
Step 6: End
Therefore, the factorial of 5 is 24.
SAA4.4. Algorithm:
Step 1: Read the input number N.
Step 2: Initialise a variable SUM as 0.
Step 3: Initialise a variable I as 1.
Step 4: While I is less than or equal to N, do steps 4.1 and 4.2.
4.1: Add I to SUM.
4.2: Increment I by 1.
Step 5: Print the value of SUM.
Step 6: End.
Example:
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Let's calculate the sum of numbers from 1 to 10.
Input: N = 10
Algorithm execution:
Step 1: N = 10
Step 2: SUM = 0
Step 3: I = 1
Step 4:
Iteration 1: SUM = SUM + I = 0 + 1 = 1, I = 2
Iteration 2: SUM = SUM + I = 1 + 2 = 3, I = 3
Iteration 3: SUM = SUM + I = 3 + 3 = 6, I = 4
Iteration 4: SUM = SUM + I = 6 + 4 = 10, I = 5
Iteration 5: SUM = SUM + I = 10 + 5 = 15, I = 6
Iteration 6: SUM = SUM + I = 15 + 6 = 21, I = 7
Iteration 7: SUM = SUM + I = 21 + 7 = 28, I = 8
Iteration 8: SUM = SUM + I = 28 + 8 = 36, I = 9
Iteration 9: SUM = SUM + I = 36 + 9 = 45, I = 10
Iteration 10: SUM = SUM + I = 45 + 10 = 55, I = 11
Step 5: Print SUM = 55
Step 6: End
Therefore, the sum of numbers from 1 to 10 is 55.
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Tutor-Marked Assignment
1. Define an Algorithm
2. Write an algorithm to find the largest of three given numbers.
3. Write an algorithm to check whether a given integer value is a prime
number or not.
4. Write an Algorithm for perimeter of a Triangle
References/Further Reading
Iverson, K. E. (1962, May). A programming language. In Proceedings of the
May 1-3, 1962, spring joint computer conference (pp. 345-351).
Shieber, S. (1984). The design of a computer language for linguistic
information. In Proceedings of the Tenth International Conference on
Computational Linguistics Association for Computational Linguistics.
Bell, Eona, and David Potter, “Computer Applications for People with
Autism,” 2001.
http://www.nas.org.uk/nas/jsp/polopoly.jsp?d=303a=3276.
Pierce, B. C. (2002). Types and programming languages. MIT Press
Brain, Marshall, “How computer mice work,” 2004.
http://www.howstuffworks.com/
mouse.htm.
Da Cruz, Frank, “Herman Hollerith,” 2004.
http://www.columbia.edu/acis/history/
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hollerith.html.
Dowler, Mike, “Beginners Guides: Legally Copying Software and Music,” PC
Stats,
2003. http://www.pcstats.com/articleview.cfm?articleid=868.
Fernandes, Luis, “A Brief History of the Abacus,” 2003.
http://www.ee.ryerson.ca:8080/
~elf/abacus/history.html
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Study Session 5: Flowchart
Introduction
Flowcharts are nothing but the graphical representation of the data or the
algorithm for a better understanding of the code visually. It displays
step-by-step solutions to a problem, algorithm, or process. It is a pictorial
way of representing steps that are preferred by most beginner-level
programmers to understand algorithms in computer science, thus
contributing to troubleshooting the issues in the algorithm. A flowchart is
a picture of boxes that indicates the process's flow in a sequential
manner. Since a flowchart is a pictorial representation of a process or
algorithm, it’s easy to interpret and understand the process. To draw a
flowchart, certain rules need to be followed, which are followed by all
professionals and are widely accepted all over the world.
Learning Outcomes (LOs)
By the end of this session, you should be able to:
5.1. Explain the Computer System Structure
5.2. Develop Algorithm for simple problem
5.3. Understand the concept of Flowchart development
5.4. Draw the symbols used in Flowcharts
5.5. Understand what a pseudocode is and how to use it.
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5.1 Flowchart
A flow chart is a step by step diagrammatic representation of the
logic paths to solve a given problem. A flowchart is a visual or
graphical representation of an algorithm.
The flowcharts are pictorial representations of the methods to be
used to solve a given problem and help a great deal to analyse the
problem and plan its solution in a systematic and orderly manner. A
flowchart when translated into a proper computer language,
results in a complete program.
5.1.1 Advantages of Flowcharts
1. The flowchart shows the logic of a problem displayed in
pictorial fashion which facilitates easier checking of an
algorithm.
2.The Flowchart is a good means of communication to other
users. It is also a compact means of recording an algorithm
solution to a problem.
3.The flowchart allows the problem solver to break the
problem into parts. These parts can be connected to make
a master chart.
4.The flowchart is a permanent record of the solution that
can be consulted at a later time.
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5.1.2 Differences between Algorithm and Flowchart
Table 5.1: Differences between algorithm and flowchart
Algorithm Flowchart
A method of representing the A flowchart is a diagrammatic
step-by-step logical procedure for representation of an algorithm, it is
solving a problem. constructed using different types
of boxes and symbols.
It contains step-by-step English The flowchart employs a series of
descriptions, each step blocks and arrows, each of which
representing a particular operation represents a particular step in an
leading to the solution of a algorithm.
problem.
It is particularly useful for simple It is useful for the detailed
problems. representation of complicated
programs.
5.1.3 Symbols used in a flowchart
The symbols that we use while drawing flowcharts, as given below,
are as per conventions followed by the International Standard
Organisation (ISO):
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1. Oval: A rectangle with rounded sides is used to
indicate either START/ STOP of the program.
2. Input and output indicators: Parallelograms are
used to represent input and output operations.
Statements like INPUT, READ, and PRINT are represented in
these parallelograms.
3. Process Indicators: - Rectangle is used to
indicate any set of processing operations, such as storing
arithmetic operations.
4. Decision Makers: The diamond is used for
indicating the step of decision making and therefore
known as decision box. Decision boxes are used to test the
conditions or ask questions and depending upon the
answers, the appropriate actions are taken by the
computer. The decision box symbol is
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5. Flow Lines: Flow lines indicate the direction
being followed in the flowchart. In a Flowchart, every line
must have an arrow on it to indicate the direction. The
arrows may be in any direction
6. On- Page connectors: Circles are used to join
the different parts of a flowchart, and these circles are
called on-page connectors. The use of these connectors
gives a neat shape to the flowcharts. In complicated
problems, a flowchart may run several pages. The parts of
the flowchart on different pages are to be joined with each
other. The parts to be joined are indicated by the circle.
7. Off-page connectors: This connector
represents a break in the path of a flowchart that is too
large to fit on a single page. It is similar to an on-page
connector. The connector symbol marks where the
algorithm ends on the first page and where it continues on
the second.
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5.1.4 Simple Problems solved using FlowChart
1. Draw the Flowchart to find Roots of Quadratic equation ax2+
bx + c
= 0. The coefficients a, b, c are the input data
Figure 5.1: A flowchart to find the roots of a quadratic equation.
2.Draw a flowchart to find out the biggest of the three
unequal positive numbers.
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Figure 5.2: A flowchart for biggest of three numbers
3. Draw a flowchart for adding the integers from 1 to
100 and to print the sum.
Figure 5.3: A flowchart to add from 1-100
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4. Draw a flowchart to find the factorial of a positive integer N .
Figure 5.4: A flowchart to find the factorial of a number.
5. Develop a flowchart to illustrate how to make a
Landline telephone call
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Figure 5.5: A flowchart for a telephone call
Flowchart for Telephone call
6.6. ABC company plans to give a 6% year-end bonus
to each of its employees earning Rs 6,000 or more
per month , and a fixed Rs 250/- - bonus to the
remaining employees. Draw a flowchart for
calculating the bonus for an employee
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Figure 5.6: A flowchart to calculate the bonus of a staff
Pseudocode
The Pseudocode is neither an algorithm nor a program. It is an
abstract form of a program. It consists of English-like statements
which perform specific operations. It is defined for an algorithm. It
does not use any graphical representation. In pseudocode, the
program is represented in terms of words and phrases, but the
syntax of the program is not strictly followed.
Advantages: Easy to read, Easy to understand, and Easy to
modify.
Example:
Write a pseudo code to perform the basic arithmetic operations.
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Read n1, n2
Sum = n1 + n2
Diff = n1 – n2
Mult = n1 * n2
Quot = n1/n2
Print sum, diff, mult, quot
End.
Conclusion
This session introduced students to the purpose of a flowchart and the
symbols that make up a flowchart, so that students can be able to create
their own flowchart, given a particular problem, it also mentioned
pseudocode and the advantages it has. Through using the above problem
solving methods writing code for a problem becomes easier.
Summary
In this session, you have learned to:
1. Develop Algorithm for simple problem
2.Understand the concept of Flowchart development
3.Draw the symbols used in Flowcharts
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ)
SAQ5.1. List and explain three symbols used in a flowchart. (Tests
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learning outcome 5.4)
SAQ5.2. Differentiate between pseudocode and flowchart (Tests
learning outcome 5.3)
SAQ5.3. Write a pseudocode to calculate the average of a list of
numbers.(Tests learning outcome 5.5)
SAQ5.4. Write a pseudocode to find the maximum number among
three given numbers.(Tests learning outcome 5.5)
SAQ5.5. Write a pseudocode to calculate the factorial of a given
number.(Tests learning outcome 5.5)
Self-Assessment Answers (SAA)
1. The following are symbols used in a flowchart:
● Oval: The oval symbol is used to represent the start and end
points of a flowchart. It indicates the beginning or termination
of a process. It is typically used at the top and bottom of the
flowchart.
● Rectangle: The rectangle symbol is used to represent a
process or operation in the flowchart. It represents a specific
action or task that needs to be performed. This can include
calculations, data manipulation, or any other action required
to solve the problem.
● Diamond: The diamond symbol is used to represent a decision
point in the flowchart. It is used when the flowchart needs to
branch out based on a condition or a choice. It represents a
question or a logical test, and the flow of the chart is
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determined based on the outcome of that test.
2. Pseudocode is a textual representation using natural language and
programming-like syntax, while flowcharts are visual
representations using standardised symbols and arrows.
Pseudocode focuses on the logic and algorithmic steps, while
flowcharts emphasise the visual representation of the process flow.
Both pseudocode and flowcharts serve as tools to plan, analyse,
and communicate algorithms and problem-solving approaches.
3. Read n (number of elements in the list)
Set sum = 0
Repeat n times:
Read num
Set sum = sum + num
Set average = sum / n
Display average
4. Read num1
Read num2
Read num3
Set maxNum = num1
If num2 is greater than maxNum:
Set maxNum = num2
If num3 is greater than maxNum:
Set maxNum = num3
Display maxNum
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5. Read number
Set factorial = 1
Set i = 1
Repeat until i is less than or equal to number:
Set factorial = factorial * i
Increment i by 1
Display factorial
Tutor-Marked Assignment
1. What is a Flowchart?
2. What is pseudocode?
3. What are the symbols in a flowchart?
4. Differentiate between algorithm and flowchart.
5. Draw the flowchart to find roots of Quadratic equation ax2+ bx + c =
6. What are the basic steps involved in problem solving?
References/Further Reading
Iverson, K. E. (1962, May). A programming language. In Proceedings of the
May 1-3, 1962, spring joint computer conference (pp. 345-351).
Shieber, S. (1984). The design of a computer language for linguistic
information. In Proceedings of the Tenth International Conference on
Computational Linguistics Association for Computational Linguistics.
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Bell, Eona, and David Potter, “Computer Applications for People with
Autism,” 2001.
http://www.nas.org.uk/nas/jsp/polopoly.jsp?d=303a=3276.
Pierce, B. C. (2002). Types and programming languages. MIT Press
Brain, Marshall, “How computer mice work,” 2004.
http://www.howstuffworks.com/
mouse.htm.
Da Cruz, Frank, “Herman Hollerith,” 2004.
http://www.columbia.edu/acis/history/
hollerith.html.
Dowler, Mike, “Beginners Guides: Legally Copying Software and Music,” PC
Stats,
2003. http://www.pcstats.com/articleview.cfm?articleid=868.
Fernandes, Luis, “A Brief History of the Abacus,” 2003.
http://www.ee.ryerson.ca:8080/
~elf/abacus/history.html.
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Study Session 6: Features of C
Introduction
C is a high level language and is the upgraded version of another
language (Basic Combined Program Language). C language was
designed at Bell Laboratories in the early 1970s by Dennis Ritchie.
C, being popular in the modern computer world, can be used in
mathematical, scientific, engineering, and commercial
applications.
The most popular operating system, UNIX, is written in C language.
This language also has the features of low -level languages and
hence called “System Programming Language.
Learning Outcomes (LOs)
By the end of this session, you should be able to:
6.1. What is C Language and its importance?
6.2. Explain the features and structure of C language
6.3. Understand various data types and tokens in C language
6.4. Understand working function of input and output
statements in C
6.5. Understand working function of Branching statements in
6.6. Understanding the different operators in C.
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6.1 Features of C language
1. Simple, versatile, general purpose language
2. It has rich set of Operators
3. Program execution are fast and efficient
4. Can easily manipulate bits, bytes and addresses
5. A variety of data types are available
6. Separate compilation of functions is possible
and such functions can be called by any C program
7. Block- structured language
8. Can be applied in System programming areas
like operating systems, compilers &
Interpreters, Assemblers, Text Editors, Print
Spoolers, Network Drivers, Modern Programs,
Databases, Language Interpreters, Utilities etc
6.2 Character Set
The character set is the fundamental raw-material for any
language. Like natural languages, computer languages also have a
well defined character-set, which is useful for building programs.
The C language consists of two character sets, namely, the
source character set and the execution character set. Source
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character set is useful to construct the statements in the source
program. Execution character set is employed at the time of
execution of the program.
1. Source character set : This type of character
set includes three types of characters namely alphabets,
Decimals and special symbols.
i. Alphabets : A to Z, a to z and Underscore( _ )
ii. Decimal digits : 0 to 9
iii. Special symbols: + - * / ^ % = & ! ( ) { } [ ] “ etc
2. Execution character set : This set of characters
are also called as non-graphic characters because these
are invisible and cannot be printed or displayed directly.
These characters will have an effect only when the
program is being executed. These characters are
represented by a backslash (\) followed by a character.
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Table 6.1: Showing characters with backslash
Execution Meaning Result at the time of
character execution
\n End of a Transfers the active position
line of cursor to the initia
position of next line
\ 0 (zero) End of
string Null
\t Horizontal Transfers the active
Tab position of cursor to the
next Horizontal Tab
\v Vertical Tab
Transfers the active
\f Form feed
position of cursor to the
\r Carriage next Vertical Tab
return
Transfers the active
position of cursor to the next
logical page
Transfers the active
position of cursor to the
initial position of current line
6.3 Structure of a C-Program
The structure of a C program is:
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I. main()
II. pair of braces { }
III. declarations and statements
IV. user defined functions
Preprocessor Statements: These statements begin with #
symbol. They are called preprocessor directives. These
statements direct the C preprocessor to include header files and
also symbolic constants into the C program. Some of the
preprocessor statements are:
#include<stdio.h>: for the standard input/output
functions #include<test.h>: for file inclusion of header
file Test.
#define NULL 0: for defining symbolic constant NULL = 0 etc.
Global Declarations: Variables or functions whose existence is
known in the main() function and other user-defined functions are
called global variables (or functions) and their declaration is called
global declaration. This declaration should be made before main().
main(): As the name itself indicates, it is the main function of
every C program. Execution of a C program starts from main (). No
C program is executed without the main() function. It should be
written in lowercase letters and should not be terminated by a
semicolon. It calls other library functions user defined functions.
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There must be one and only one main() function in every C
program.
Braces: Every C program uses a pair of curly braces ({,}0. The left
brace indicates the beginning of main() function. On the other
hand, the right brace indicates the end of the main() function. The
braces can also be used to indicate the beginning and end of
user-defined functions and compound statements.
Declarations: It is part of the C program where all the variables,
arrays, functions etc., used in the C program are declared and may
be initialised with their basic data types.
Statements: These are instructions to the specific operations.
They may be input-output statements, arithmetic statements,
control statements and other statements. They also include
comments.
User-defined functions: These are subprograms. Generally, a
subprogram is a function that contains a set of statements to
perform a specific task. These are written by the user; hence the
name "user-defined functions”. They may be written before or
after the main() function.
6.4 Data types in C language.
The following are data types in C language:
1. Basic data types
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2. Derived data types
3. Enumerated data types
4. Void data type
5. Boolean data type
6.4.1 Basic Data Types
There are four basic data types in C language. They are integer
data, character data, floating point data, and double data types.
1. Character data: Any character of the ASCII
character set can be considered as a character
data type and its maximum size can be 1 byte or
8 bytes long. ‘Char’ is the keyword used to
represent character data type in C.
Char -a single byte size, capable of holding one
character.
2. Integer data: The keyword ‘int’ stands for the
integer data type in C and its size is either 16 or
32 bits. The integer data type can again be
classified as
1. Long int - long integer with more digits
2. Short int - short integer with fewer digits.
3. Unsigned int - Unsigned integer
4. Unsigned short int – Unsigned short integer
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5. Unsigned long int – Unsigned long integer
As above, qualifiers like short, long, signed, or unsigned
can be applied to basic data types to derive new data
types.
int - an integer with the natural size of the host machine.
3. Floating point data: - The numbers which are
stored in floating point representation with
mantissa and exponent are called floating point
(real) numbers. These numbers can be declared
as ‘float’ in C.
float - single precision floating point number
value.
4. Double data : - Double is a keyword in C to
represent double precision floating point
numbers.
double - Double – precision floating point number value.
6.5 Tokens in C
A token is the smallest unit used in a C program; The
following are tokens:
1. Constants/Literals
2. Reserved words/ Keywords
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3. Delimiters
4. Variables/Identifiers
6.5.1 Constant/Literals:
Constants are those that do not change during the execution of
the program. Constants may be categorised into:
1. Numeric Constants
2. Character Constants
3. String Constants
Numeric Constants:
Numeric constants, as the name itself indicates, are those that
consist of numerals, an optional sign, and an optional period. They
are further divided into two types:
(a) Integer Constants (b) Real Constants
Integer Constants
A whole number is an integer constant Integer constants do not
have a decimal point. These are further divided into three types
depending on the number systems they belong to. They are:
i. Decimal integer constants
ii. Octal integer constants
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iii. Hexadecimal integer constants
A decimal integer constant is characterised by the
following properties:
1. It is a sequence of one or more digits ([0…9], the
symbols of the decimal number system).
2. It may have an optional + or – sign. In the absence of
a sign, the constant is assumed to be positive.
3. Commas and blank spaces are not permitted.
4. It should not have a period as part of it.
Some examples of valid decimal integer
constants: 456
-123
Some examples of invalid decimal integer constants:
4.56 - Decimal point is not
permissible 1,23 - Commas are
not permitted
An octal integer constant is characterised by the
following properties:
1. It is a sequence of one or more digits ([0…7],
symbols of the octal number system).
2. It may have an optional + or – sign. In the absence of
a sign, the constant is assumed to be positive.
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3. It should start with the digit 0.
4. Commas and blank spaces are not permitted.
5. It should not have a period as
part of it. Some examples of valid
octal integer constants:
0456
-0123
+0123
Some examples of invalid octal integer constants:
04.56 - Decimal point is not
permissible 04,56 - Commas
are not permitted
x34 - x is not permissible
symbol 568 - 8 is not a
permissible symbol
An hexadecimal integer constant is characterised by
the following properties:
1. It is a sequence of one or more symbols
([0…9][A….Z], the symbols of the hexadecimal
number system).
2. It may have an optional + or - sign. In the absence of
a sign, the constant is assumed to be positive.
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3. It should start with the symbols 0X or 0x.
4. Commas and blank spaces are not permitted.
5. It should not have a period as part of it.
Some examples of valid hexadecimal integer constants:
0x456
-0x123 0x56A
0XB78
Some examples of invalid hexadecimal integer
constants: 0x4.56 - Decimal point is not permissible
0x4,56 - Commas are not permitted.
Real Constants
The real constants, also known as floating point constants are
written in two forms:
(i) Fractional form, (ii) Exponential form.
Fractional Form
The real constants in fractional form are characterised by the
following characteristics:
1. Must have at least one digit.
2. Must have a decimal point.
3. May be positive or negative and in the absence of a sign it
is taken as positive.
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4. Must not contain blanks or commas in between digits.
5. May be represented in exponential form, if the
value is too high or too low.
Some examples of valid real constants:
456.78
-123.56
Some examples of invalid real constants:
4.56 - Blank spaces are not permitted
4,56 - Commas are not permitted
456 - Decimal point missing
Exponential Form
The exponential form offers a convenient way for writing very large
and small real constants. For example, 56000000.00, which can
be written as 0.56
*, 108 is written as 0.56E8 or 0.56e8 in exponential form.
0.000000234, which can be written as 0.234 * 10-6 is written as
0.234E-6 or 0.234e-6 in exponential form. The letter E or e stands
for exponential form.
A real constant expressed in exponential form has two parts: (i)
Mantissa part, (ii) Exponent part. Mantissa is the part of the real
constant to the left of E or e, and the exponent of a real constant
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is to the right of E or e. The mantissa and exponent of the two
numbers above are shown below.
Table 6.2: Mantissa and Exponent of two numbers
Mantis Expon Mantis Expon
sa ent sa ent
0.5 E8 0.2 E
6 34 -6
In the above examples, 0.56 and 0.234 are the mantissa parts of
the first and second numbers, respectively, and 8 and -6 are the
exponent parts of the first and second numbers, respectively.
The real constants in exponential form and are characterised by
the following characteristics:
1. The mantissa must have at least one digit.
2. The mantissa is followed by the letter E or e and the
exponent.
3. The exponent must have at least one digit and must be an
integer.
4. A sign for the exponent is optional. Some examples of
valid real constants:
3E4
23e-6
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0.34E6
Some examples of invalid real constants:
23E - No digit specified for exponent
23e4.5 - Exponent should not be
a fraction 23,4e5 - Commas are not
allowed
256*e8- * not allowed
Character Constants
Any character enclosed within single quotes (‘) is called character
constant.
A character constant:
1. May be a single alphabet, single digit or single
special character placed within single quotes.
2. Has a maximum length of 1 character.
Here are some examples, ‘C’, ‘c’, ‘:’, ‘*’
String Constants
A string constant is a sequence of alphanumeric characters
enclosed in double quotes whose maximum length is 255
characters.
The following are examples of valid string constants:
“My name is Krishna”, “Bible”, “Salary is 18000.00”
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The following are examples of invalid string constants:
My name is Krishna - Characters are not enclosed in double
quotation marks.
“My name is Krishna - Closing double quotation mark is missing.
‘My name is Krishna’ - Characters are not enclosed in double
quotation marks
6.5.2 Reserved Words/Keywords
In C, some words are reserved to do specific tasks intended for
them and are called "keywords" or "reserved words”. The list
reserved words are:
Auto Do goto
Break Double if
Case Else int
Char Extern long
Continue Float register
Default For return
Short Sizeof static
Struct Switch typedef
Union Unsigned void
While Const entry
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Violate Enum noalias
6.5.3 Delimiters
This is a symbol that has syntactic meaning and significance.
These will not specify any operation to result in a value. C
language delimiters list is given below
Symbol Name Meaning
# Hash Pre-processor directive
, comma Variable delimiter to
separate variable
: Colon label delimiter
; Semicolon statement delimiter
() parenthesis used for expressions
{} curly braces used for blocking of
statements
[] square braces used along with arrays
6.5.4 Variables / Identifiers
These are the names of the objects, whose values can be
changed during the program execution. Variables are named with
a description that transmits the value they hold.
[A quantity of an item that can change its value during the
execution of a program is called a variable. It is also known as an
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Identifier].
Rules for naming a variable:-
1. It can be of letters, digits and underscore( _ )
2. First letter should be a letter or an underscore, but
it should not be a digit.
3. Reserve words cannot be used as
variable names. Example: basic, root,
rate, roll-no etc are valid names.
Declaration of variables:
Syntax Type Variable list
Int i, j i, j are declared as integers
Float Salary Salary is declared ad floating
point variable
Char Sex Sex is declared as character
variable
6.6 Operators
An Operator is a symbol that operates on a certain data type. The
data items that operators act upon are called operands. Some
operators require two operands, some operators act upon only
one operand. In C, operators can be classified into various
categories based on their utility and action.
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1. Arithmetic Operators
2. Relational Operators
3. Logical Operators
4. Assignment Operators
5. Increment and Decrement Operators
6. Conditional Operator
7. Bitwise Operator
8. Comma Operator
6.6.1 Arithmetic Operators
The arithmetic operator performs arithmetic operations. The
arithmetic operators can operate on any built in data type. A List of
arithmetic operators are
Operator Meaning
+ Addition
- Subtraction
* Multiplication
/ Division
% Modulo division
6.6.2 Relational Operators
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Relational Operators are used to compare arithmetic, logical and
character expressions. The Relational Operators compare their
left hand side expression with their right hand side expression.
Then evaluates to an integer. If the Expression is false it evaluate
to “zero”(0) if the expression is true it evaluate to “one”
Operator Meaning
< Less than
> Greater than
<= Less than or Equal to
>= Greater than or Equal to
== Equal to
!= Not Equal to
The relational operators are represented in the following
manner: Expression-1 (Relational Operator)
Expression-2
Expression-1 will be compared with Expression -2 and depending
on the relation, the result will be either “TRUE” OR “FALSE”.
Examples :
Expression Evaluate to
(5 <= 10) ———————— TRUE
(-35 > 10) ———————— FALSE
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(X < 10) ———————— If the value of x is less than 10, TRUE;
otherwise, FALSE.
(a + b) = = ( c + d ) If the sum of a and b equals the sum of c,
d is TRUE; otherwise, it is FALSE.
6.6.3 Logical Operators
A logical operator is used to evaluate logical and relational
expressions. The logical operators act on operands that are
themselves logical expressions. There are three logical operators.
Operators Expression
&& Logical AND
|| Logical OR
! Logical NOT
Logical And (&&):
A compound expression is true when two expressions are true.
The && is used in the following manner.
Exp1 && Exp2.
The result of a logical AND operation will be true only if both operands are
True
The results of logical operators are:
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Example:
a = 5; b = 10; c = 15;
Exp1 Exp2 Result
1. ( a< b ) && ( b < c ) => True
2. ( a> b ) && ( b < c ) => False
3. ( a< b ) && ( b > c ) => False
4. ( a> b ) && ( b > c ) => False
Logical OR:
A compound expression is false when all expressions are false;
otherwise, the compound expression is true. The operator “||” is
used as It evaluates to true if either exp-1 or exp-2 is true.
Example:
a = 5; b = 10; c = 15;
Exp1 Exp2 Result
1. ( a< b ) || ( b < c ) => True
2. ( a> b ) || ( b < c ) => True
3. ( a< b ) || ( b > c ) => True
4. ( a> b ) || ( b > c ) => False
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Logical NOT:
The NOT ( ! ) operator takes a single expression and evaluates to
true(1) if the expression is false (0) or it evaluates to false (0) if
expression is true (1). The general form of the expression.
! ( Relational Expression )
Example:
a = 5; b = 10; c = 15
1. !( a< b ) False
2.!( a> b ) True
6.6.4 Assignment Operator
An assignment operator is used to assign a value to a variable. The
most commonly used assignment operator is =. The general
format for assignment operator is :
<Identifier> = < expression >
Where identifier represent a variable and expression represents a
constant, a variable or a Complex expression.
If the two operands in an assignment expression are of different
data types, then the value of the expression on the right will
automatically be converted to the type of the identifier on the left.
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Example:
Suppose that I is an Integer type Variable then
1. I = 3.33 ( Value of I )
2.I = 3.93 ( Value of I )
3.I = 5.745 ( Value of I )
Multiple assignment
< identifier-1 > = < identifier-2 > = - - - = < identifier-n > =
<exp>;
Example:
a,b,c are integers; j is float variable
1. a = b = c = 3;
2. a = j = 5.6; then a = 5.6 and j value will be 5.6
C contains the following five additional assignment operators
1. +=
2. -=
3. +=
4. *=
5. /=
The assignment expression is: - Exp1 < Operator> Exp-2
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Example:
I = 10 (assume that)
Expression Equivalent to Final Value of ‘I’
1. I + = 5; I = I + 5; result = 15
2. I - = 5; I = I - 5; result = 10
3. I * = 5; I = I * 5; result = 50
4. I / = 5; I = I / 5; result = 10
6.6.5 Increment & Decrement Operator
The increment & decrement operator acts upon a Single operand
and produces a new value, it is also called “unary operator”. The
increment operator ++ adds 1 to the operand and the Decrement
operator – subtracts 1 from the operand.
Syntax: < operator >< variable name >;
The ++ or – operator can be used in two ways:
++a; Pre-increment (or) a++ Post increment —a; Pre- Decrement (or) a—
Post decrement
1. ++ a Immediately increments the value of a by 1.
2. a ++ The value of a will be incremented by 1 after it is utilized.
Example 1:
Suppose a = 5 ;
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Statements; Outputs
printf ( “a value is %d”, a ); a value is 5
printf ( “a value is %d”, ++ a ); a value is 6
printf ( “a value is %d “, a) ; a value is 6
Example 2:
Suppose : a = 5 ;
Statements; Output
printf (“a value is %d “, a); a value is 5
printf (“a value is %d “, a++); a value is 5
printf (“a value is %d “,a); a value is 6
a and a- will be act on operand by decrement value like
increment operator.
6.6.6 Conditional operator (or) Ternary operator (? :)
It is called ternary because it uses three expressions. The ternary
operator acts like If- Else construction.
Syn :( <Exp –1 > ? <Exp-2> : <Exp-3> );
Expression-1 is evaluated first. If Exp-1 is true, then Exp-2 is
evaluated; otherwise, Exp-3 will be evaluated.
Flow Chart :
Exp-1
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Exp-2
Exp-3 Exit
Example:
1. a = 5 ; b = 3;
( a> b ? printf (“a is larger”) : printf (“b is larger”));
Output is :a is larger
2. a = 3; b = 3;
(a> b ? printf (“a is larger”) : printf (“b is larger”));
Output is :b is larger
6.6.7 Bit wise Operator
A bitwise operator operates on each bit of data. These bitwise
operators can be divided into three categories.
i. The logical bitwise operators.
ii. The shift operators
iii. The one’s complement operator.
The logical Bitwise Operator
There are three logical bitwise operators.
Meaning Operator:
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a)Bitwise AND &
b)Bitwise OR |
c) Bitwise exclusive XOR ^
Suppose b1 and b2 represent the corresponding bits within the first and
second operands, respectively.
B1 B2 B1 & B2 B1 | B2 B1 ^ B2
11110
10011
01011
00000
The operations are carried out independently on each pair of
corresponding bits within the operand, thus the least significant
bits (i.e., the rightmost bits) within the two operands. Will be
compared until all the bits have been compared. The results of
these comparisons are
A Bitwise AND expression will return a 1 if both bits have a value of 1.
Otherwise, it will return a value of 0.
A Bitwise OR expression will return a 1 if one or more of the bits
have a value of 1. Otherwise, it will return a value of 0.
A Bitwise EXCLUSIVE OR expression will return a 1 if one of the
bits has a value of 1 and the other has a value of 0. Otherwise, it
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will return a value of 0.
Example:
Variable Value Binary Pattern
X 5 0101
Y 2 0010
X & Y 0 0000
X | Y 7 0111
X ^ Y 7 0111
The Bitwise shift Operations:
The two bitwise shift operators are Shift left (<<) and Shift right
(>>). Each operator requires two operands. The first operand that
represents the bit pattern to be shifted. The second is an
unsigned integer that indicates the number of displacements.
Example:
c = a << 3;
The value in the integer a is shifted to the left by three -bit position. The
result is assigned to c.
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A = 13; c= A<<3;
Left shift << c= 13 * 2 3 = 104;
Binary number 0000 0000 0000 1101
After left bit shift by 3 places
ie,. a<<3 0000 0000 0110
1000
The right –bit – shift operator ( >> ) is also a binary operator.
Example:
c = a >> 2 ;
The value of a is shifted to the right
by 2 position insert 0’s Right – shift
>> drop off 0’s
0000 0000 0000 1101
After right shift by 2 places
is a>>2 0000 0000 0000
0011 c=13>>2 c= 13/4=3
Bit wise complement:
The complement operator switches all the bits in a binary pattern,
i.e., all the 0s become 1s and all the 1s become 0s.
Variable; value Binary 8-bit
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x = 23 0001 0111 (Original)
~x =132 1110 1000 (Complement)
6.6.8 Comma Operator
A set of expressions separated by commas is a valid construction
in C.
Example :
int i, j; i= ( j =
3, j + 2 ) ;
The first expression is j = 3, and second is j + 2. These
expressions are evaluated from left to right. From the
above example, I = 5.
Size of operator:
The operator size gives the size of the data type or variable in
terms of bytes occupied in the memory. This operator allows a
determination of the number of bytes allocated to various data
items.
Example :
int i; float x; double d; char c; OUTPUT
Printf (“integer : %d\n”, sizeof(i)); Integer : 2
Printf (“float : %d\n”, sizeof(i)); Float : 4
Printf (“double : %d\n”, sizeof(i)); double : 8
Printf (“char : %d\n”,sizeof(i)); character : 1
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Conclusion
This session introduced the students to the C programming language, its
features, structures, various data types, tokens, operators used for basic
operations, and input and output statements. More information will be
taught in the next study session.
Summary
In this session, you have learned to:
1. What is C Language and its importance?
2. Explain the features of C language
3. Understand various data types
4. Understand working function of input and output statements in C
5. Understand operators in C-programming language
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ)
SAQ6.1. What are the different components of the structure of a C
program?(Tests learning outcome 6.2)
SAQ6.2. What is the purpose of preprocessor statements in a C
program? Give some examples.(Tests learning outcome 6.2)
SAQ6.3. What are global declarations in a C program? Where
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should they be made?(Tests learning outcome 6.2)
SAQ6.4. Why is the main() function important in a C program? Can
a program run without it?(Tests learning outcome 6.2)
SAQ6.5. What are delimiters in C? Provide examples of different
delimiters.(Tests learning outcome 6.3)
SAQ6.6. What are variables/identifiers in C programming?(Tests
learning outcome 6.3)
SAQ6.7. What are the different categories of operators in C?.(Tests
learning outcome 6.6)
SAQ6.8. How do relational operators work in C? Give examples of
their usage.(Tests learning outcome 6.6)
Self-Assessment Answers (SAA)
SAA6.1. The components of the structure of a C program includes:
● main() function
● Pair of braces {}
● Declarations and statements
● User-defined functions
● Preprocessor statements
● Global declarations
SAA6.2. Preprocessor statements in a C program, indicated by the
# symbol, direct the C preprocessor to include header files and
define symbolic constants. They provide instructions to the
compiler before the actual compilation process.
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SAA6.3. The main() function is the central function of every C
program. It serves as the starting point of program execution and
must be present in every C program. It calls other library functions
and user-defined functions.
SAA6.4. Braces, represented by {}, are used to define the
beginning and end of various sections in a C program, including the
main() function, user-defined functions, and compound
statements. They help in grouping statements together.
SAA6.5. Delimiters in C programming are symbols that have
syntactic meaning and significance. Some examples include: #
(hash), comma, colon, semicolon, parentheses (), curly braces {},
square braces [], etc.
SAA6.6. Variables/identifiers are names given to objects in a C
program whose values can be changed during program execution.
They are used to store and manipulate data. Variables are declared
with a specific data type and naming conventions need to be
followed.
SAA6.7. There are various types of operators, they include the
following:
● Arithmetic Operators:
Arithmetic operators are used to perform mathematical
calculations.
Examples: + (addition), - (subtraction), * (multiplication), /
(division), % (modulo)
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● Relational Operators:
Relational operators are used to compare values and
determine the relationship between them.
Examples: == (equal to), != (not equal to), < (less than), >
(greater than), <= (less than or equal to), >= (greater than or
equal to)
● Logical Operators:
Logical operators are used to perform logical operations on
Boolean expressions or values.
Examples: && (logical AND), || (logical OR), ! (logical NOT)
● Assignment Operators:
Assignment operators are used to assign values to variables.
Examples: = (simple assignment), += (addition assignment),
-= (subtraction assignment), *= (multiplication assignment),
/= (division assignment), %= (modulo assignment)
● Increment and Decrement Operators:
Increment and decrement operators are used to increase or
decrease the value of a variable by 1.
Examples: ++ (increment), -- (decrement)
● Bitwise Operators:
Bitwise operators are used to perform operations at the bit
level.
Examples: & (bitwise AND), | (bitwise OR), ^ (bitwise XOR), ~
(bitwise NOT), << (left shift), >> (right shift)
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● Conditional Operator (Ternary Operator):
The conditional operator is a shorthand way of writing if-else
statements.
Example: (condition) ? (expression1) : (expression2)
● Comma Operator:
The comma operator is used to separate expressions and
evaluate them sequentially. The value of the entire
expression is the value of the last expression.
Example: expression1, expression2, expression3
SAA6.8. Relational operators in C programming are used to
compare values and evaluate logical and relational expressions.
They include: < (less than), > (greater than), <= (less than or equal
to), >= (greater than or equal to), == (equal to), and != (not equal
to).
Tutor-Marked Assignment
1. Explain the basic structure of a C program.
2. Write about data types used in C
3. What is Constant? Explain various types of constants in C.
4. Explain various types of Operators in C.
5. Explain formatted and unformatted input and output statements in
References/Further Reading
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Iverson, K. E. (1962, May). A programming language. In Proceedings of the
May 1-3, 1962, spring joint computer conference (pp. 345-351).
Shieber, S. (1984). The design of a computer language for linguistic
information. In Proceedings of the Tenth International Conference on
Computational Linguistics. Association for Computational Linguistics.
Bell, Eona, and David Potter, “Computer Applications for People with
Autism,” 2001.
http://www.nas.org.uk/nas/jsp/polopoly.jsp?d=303a=3276.
Pierce, B. C. (2002). Types and programming languages. MIT Press
Brain, Marshall, “How computer mice work,” 2004.
http://www.howstuffworks.com/
mouse.htm.
Da Cruz, Frank, “Herman Hollerith,” 2004.
http://www.columbia.edu/acis/history/
hollerith.html.
Dowler, Mike, “Beginners Guides: Legally Copying Software and Music,” PC
Stats,
2003. http://www.pcstats.com/articleview.cfm?articleid=868.
Fernandes, Luis, “A Brief History of the Abacus,” 2003.
http://www.ee.ryerson.ca:8080/
~elf/abacus/history.html.
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Study Session 7: Expressions in C-Language
Introduction
An expression is a combination of operators, constants, and variables. An
expression may consist of one or more operands, and zero or more
operators to produce a value.
Learning Outcomes (LOs)
By the end of this session, you should be able to:
7.1. Explain the expression and statements in C-Language
7.2. Have knowledge of the evaluation procedure.
7.3. Understand the various types of input and output
statements.
7.4. Understanding the importance of assignment statements.
7.1 Expression
An expression can be defined as a collection of data objects and
operators that can be evaluated to lead to a single new data
object. A data object is a constant, variable, or another data
object.
Example:
a+b
x + y + 6.0
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3.14 * r * r
( a + b ) * ( a – b)
The above expressions are called arithmetic expressions because the
data objects (constants and variables) are connected using arithmetic
operators.
7.2 Evaluation Procedure
The evaluation of arithmetic expressions is as per the hierarchy
rules governed by the C compiler. The precedence or hierarchy
rules for arithmetic expressions are:
1. The expression is scanned from left to right.
2. While scanning the expression, the evaluation preference
for the operators are (*, /, %) are evaluated first and (+, -)
are evaluated next.
3. To overcome the above precedence rules, the user has to
make use of parentheses, if parentheses are used, the
expression/expressions are evaluated first as per the above
hierarchy.
7.3 Statements
7.3.1 Data Input & Output
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An input/output function can be accessed from anywhere within a
program simply by writing the function name followed by a list of
arguments enclosed in parentheses. The arguments represent
data items that are sent to the function.
Some input/output functions do not require arguments, though
empty parentheses must still appear. They are:
Table 7.1 : Input and Output statements in C
Input Output
Statements Statements
Formatted scanf() printf()
Unformatted getchar() putchar()
gets() puts()
getchar()
Single characters can be entered into the computer using the C
library Function getchar(). It returns a single character from a
standard input device. The function does not require any
arguments.
Syntax: <Character variable> = getchar();
Example:
char c;
c = getchar();
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putchar()
Single characters can be displayed using the function putchar().
It returns a single character to a standard output device. It must
be expressed as an argument to the function.
Syntax: putchar(<character variable>);
Example:
char c;
putchar( c );
gets()
The function gets() receives the string from the standard input device.
Syntax: gets(<string type variable or array of char> ); Where s is a string.
The function accepts the string as a parameter from the
keyboard, until a newline character is encountered. At the
end, the function appends a “null” terminator and returns.
puts()
The function puts() outputs the string to the standard output device.
Conversion Characters Characters Meaning
%c data item is a single character.
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%d data item is a decimal integer.
%f data item is a floating-point value.
%e data item is a floating- point value.
%g data item is a floating-point value.
%h data item is a short integer.
%s data item is a string.
%x data item is a hexadecimal integer.
%o data item is an octal integer.
printf()
The printf() function is used to print the data from the computer’s
memory onto a standard output device. This function can be used
to output any combination of numerical values, single characters,
and strings.
Syntax: printf(“control string”, arg-1, arg-2,———arg-n );
Where control string is a string that contains formatted
information, and arg-1, arg-2 —— are arguments that
represent the output data items.
Example:
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#include<st
dio.h> main()
char
item[20];
int partno;
float cost;
———————
printf (“%s %d %f”, item, partno, cost);
Syntax: puts(s);
Where s is a string that was real with gets();
Example:
main()
char line[80];
gets(line);
puts(line);
scanf()
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Scanf() function can be used to input the data into memory from
the standard input device. This function can be used to enter any
combination of numerical values, single characters, and strings.
The function returns a number of data item characters.
Syntax:-scanf (“control strings”, &arg1,&arg2,——&argn);
Where control string refers to a string containing certain
required formatting information and arg1, arg2——argn are
arguments that represent the individual input data items.
Example:
#include<st
dio.h> main()
char
item[20];
int partno;
float cost;
scanf(“%s %d %f”,&item,&partno,&cost);
Where s, d, and f with % are conversion characters. The
conversion characters indicate the type of the
corresponding data. Commonly used conversion
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characters from data input.
} (Where %s %d %f are conversion characters.)
7.4 Assignment Statement
Assignment statement can be defined as the statement through which
the value obtained from an expression can be stored in a variable. The
general form of assignment statement is
< variable name> = < arithmetic expression> ;
Example:
sum = a + b + c;
tot = s1 + s2 + s3;
area = ½ * b* h;
Conclusion
This session introduced the students to expressions in C-language, input
and output statements, and the working functions of branching
statements in C language. The looping statements and break statements
were also examined in this session.
Summary
In this session, you have learned to:
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1. Explain the expression meaning in C-Language
2. Understand working function of Branching statements in C
3. Understand working function of Looping statements in C
4. Understand differences between Break and Continue
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ)
SAQ7.1. What are statements in C programming?(Tests learning
outcome 7.1)
SAQ7.2. What is the purpose of input/output functions in C?(Tests
learning outcome 7.3)
SAQ7.3. Provide examples of input and output statements in
C.(Tests learning outcome 7,3)
SAQ7.4. Explain the purpose and usage of the getchar()
function.(Tests learning outcome 7.3)
SAQ7.5. How is the putchar() function used in C?(Tests learning
outcome 7.3)
Self-Assessment Answers (SAA)
SAA7.1. Statements in C programming are individual instructions
or commands that make up a program. They are used to perform
specific actions or operations.
SAA7.2. The purpose of input/output functions in C is to allow the
program to interact with the user and the external environment.
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These functions enable the program to take input from the user,
display output on the screen, read/write files, and perform other
input/output operations.
SAA7.3. Examples of input statements in C include:
scanf() - used to read input from the user.
getchar() - used to read a single character from the standard input.
gets() - used to read a string from the standard input.
Examples of output statements in C include:
printf() - used to display output on the screen.
putchar() - used to display a single character on the screen.
puts() - used to display a string on the screen.
SAA7.4. The getchar() function is used to read a single character
from the standard input (usually the keyboard). It does not require
any arguments. The function waits for the user to enter a character
and returns that character. The character can be stored in a variable
for further processing.
SAA7.5. The putchar() function is used to display a single
character on the standard output (usually the screen). It takes a
single character as an argument and outputs it. The character to be
displayed can be a literal character or a character stored in a
variable.
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Tutor-Marked Assignment
1. What is the gets() function used for? Provide its syntax.
2. Explain the purpose and usage of the puts() function.
3. What are conversion characters in C's printf() function? Provide
some examples.
4. Describe the usage of the scanf() function in C. Give an example.
5. What is an assignment statement in C?
6. How is an assignment statement formed?
7. Give examples of assignment statements in C.
References/Further Reading
Iverson, K. E. (1962, May). A programming language. In Proceedings of the
May 1-3, 1962, spring joint computer conference (pp. 345-351).
Shieber, S. (1984). The design of a computer language for linguistic
information. In Proceedings of the Tenth International Conference on
Computational Linguistics Association for Computational Linguistics.
Bell, Eona, and David Potter, “Computer Applications for People with
Autism,” 2001.
http://www.nas.org.uk/nas/jsp/polopoly.jsp?d=303a=3276.
Pierce, B. C. (2002). Types and programming languages. MIT Press
Brain, Marshall, “How computer mice work,” 2004.
http://www.howstuffworks.com/
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mouse.htm.
Da Cruz, Frank, “Herman Hollerith,” 2004.
http://www.columbia.edu/acis/history/
hollerith.html.
Dowler, Mike, “Beginners Guides: Legally Copying Software and Music,” PC
Stats,
2003. http://www.pcstats.com/articleview.cfm?articleid=868.
Fernandes, Luis, “A Brief History of the Abacus,” 2003.
http://www.ee.ryerson.ca:8080/
~elf/abacus/history.html.
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Study Session 8: Control Structure
Introduction
Control structures are simply a method for specifying control flow in
programs. Any algorithm or program can be made more transparent and
comprehensible by employing modules known as logic or control
structures. It analyses and selects the flow direction of a program based
on certain parameters and conditions. A control structure is analogous to
a programming block that analyses variables and selects an action based
on given parameters. The term flow control describes the program's
direction (which way program control "flows"). Consequently, it is the
fundamental decision-making process in computing; it is a forecast.
Learning Outcomes (LOs)
By the end of this session, you should be able to:
8.1. Explain the Conditional statements
8.2. Understand the if statement
8.3. Explain the if else statement
8.4. Understand the else-if statement
8.5. Describe the switch statement
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8.1 Conditional Statements
The conditional expressions are mainly used for decision making. The
following statements are used to perform the task of the conditional
operations.
1. if statement.
2.If-else statement or 2 way if statement
3.Nested else-if statement.
4.Nested if –else statement.
5. Switch statement.
8.1.1 if statement
The if statement is used to express conditional expressions. If the
given condition is true then it will execute the statements
otherwise skip the statements.
The simple structure of ‘if statement is
i. If (< conditional expression>)
statement-1;
(or)
ii. If (< conditional expression)
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statement-1; statement-2;
statement-3;
……………
…………… STATEMENT-N
The expression is evaluated, and if the expression is true, the
statements will be executed. If the expression is false, the
statements are skipped, and execution continues with the next
statements.
Example:
a=20; b=10;
if ( a > b )
printf (“big number is %d” a);
8.1.2 if-else statements
The if-else statement is used to execute either of the two statements
depending upon the value of the expression. The general form is:
if(<exp>)
Statement-1;
Statement -2;
………….. “ SET-I”
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……………
Statement- n;
else
Statement1;
Statement 2;
………….. “ SET-II
……………
Statement n;
SET - I statements will be executed if the
exp is true. SET – II statements will be
executed if the exp is false.
Example:
if ( a> b )
printf (“a is greater than b”);
else
printf (“a is not greater than b”);
8.1.3 Nested else-if statements
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In some situations, it may be desirable to nest multiple if-else
statements. In this situation, one of several different courses of
action will be selected.
Syntax
if ( <exp1> )
Statement-1;
else if ( <exp2> )
Statement-2;
else if ( <exp3> )
Statement-3;
else
Statement-4;
When a logical expression is encountered whose value is true, the
corresponding statements will be executed, and the remainder of
the nested else if statement will be bypassed. Thus, control will be
transferred out of the entire nest once a true condition is
encountered.
The final else clause will be applied if none of the expressions is true.
8.1.4 Nested if-else statement
It is possible to nest if-else statements, one within another. There
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are several different forms that a nested if-else statement can
take.
The most general form of two-layer nesting is
if(exp1){
if(exp2){
statement - 1;}
else{
statement - 2;}
else{
if (exp3){
statement - 3;}
else{
statement - 4;}
One complete if-else statement will be executed if expression 1 is
true, and another complete if-else statement will be executed if
expression 1 is false.
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8.1.5 Switch statement
A switch statement is used to choose a statement (for a group of
statements) among several alternatives. The switch statement is
useful when a variable is to be compared with different constants,
and in case it is equal to a constant, a set of statements are to be
executed.
Syntax:
Switch (exp){
case constant1 :
statement-1;
break;
case constant2 :
statement-2;
break;
default :
statement-3;}
Where constant1, constant2, — — — are either integer constants or
character constants. When the switch statement is executed, the exp is
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evaluated and control is transferred directly to the group of statements
whose case label value matches the value of the exp. If none of the case
label values match the value of the exp, then the default part statements
will be executed.
If none of the case labels match the value of the exp and the
default group is not present, then no action will be taken by the
switch statement and control will be transferred out of the switch
statement.
A simple switch statement is illustrated below.
Example 1:
main()
char choice;
printf(“Enter Your Color (Red - R/r, White – W/w)”);
choice=getchar();
switch(choice= getchar())
case‘r’:
case‘R’:
printf
(“Red”);
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break;
case‘w’:
case‘W’:
printf (“white”); break;
default :
printf (“no colour”);
Example 2:
switch(day)
case 1:
printf
(“Monday”);
break;
———
———
Conclusion
This session introduced the students to conditional statements, the if
statement, the if else statement, and the nested if else statement. The
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switch statement and else-if statement were also examined in this
session.
Summary
In this session, you have learned to:
1. Explain the Conditional statements
2. Understand the if statement
3. Explain the if else statement
4. Understand the else-if statement
5. Describe the switch statement
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ)
SAQ8.1. What are the different types of conditional statements
mentioned in the text?(Tests learning outcome 8.1)
SAQ8.2. How does the "if" statement work in C? Provide an
example.(Tests learning outcome 8.2)
SAQ8.3. Explain the purpose and structure of the "if-else"
statement in C. Give an example.(Tests learning outcome 8.3)
SAQ8.4. What is the purpose of nested else-if statements? Provide
the syntax and explain their execution.(Tests learning outcome 8.4)
SAQ8.5. What is the switch statement used for in C? Provide its
syntax and explain how it works.(Tests learning outcome 8.5)
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Self-Assessment Answers (SAA)
SAA8.1. The different types of conditional statements mentioned
in the text are:
● if statement
● if-else statement
● nested else-if statement
● nested if-else statement
● switch statement
SAA8.2. The "if" statement in C is used to express conditional
expressions. It evaluates a condition and executes a block of
statements if the condition is true. If the condition is false, the block
of statements is skipped.
Example:
int num = 10;
if (num > 0) {
printf("The number is positive.");
SAA8.3. The purpose of the "if-else" statement is to execute
different blocks of code based on the condition. If the condition is
true, the statements in the "if" block are executed. If the condition
is false, the statements in the "else" block are executed.
Example:
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int num = 10;
if (num % 2 == 0) {
printf("The number is even.");
} else {
printf("The number is odd.");
SAA8.4. Nested else-if statements allow for multiple conditions to
be checked in a sequential manner. They are useful when there are
multiple possible courses of action based on different conditions.
Syntax:
if (condition1) {
// Statements if condition1 is true
} else if (condition2) {
// Statements if condition1 is false and condition2 is true
} else {
// Statements if both condition1 and condition2 are false
Execution: When a logical expression is encountered whose value is
true, the corresponding statements are executed, and the rest of
the nested else-if statement is bypassed. If none of the conditions
are true, the statements in the else block are executed.
SAA8.5. The switch statement in C is used to choose a statement
(or a group of statements) among several alternatives based on the
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value of a variable. It provides a convenient way to handle multiple
cases efficiently.
Syntax:
switch (expression) {
case constant1:
// Statements for constant1
break;
case constant2:
// Statements for constant2
break;
default:
// Statements when none of the cases match
How it works: The expression is evaluated, and its value is compared
with the constant values specified in each case. If a match is found,
the corresponding statements are executed. The "break"
statement is used to exit the switch block. If none of the cases
match and a default case is present, the statements in the default
block are executed. If there is no match and no default case, the
switch statement is skipped.
Tutor-Marked Assignment
1. Write about ‘Switch” Statement.
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2. Write the syntax of Simple if statement.
3. Write the syntax of if … else statement.
4. What is a Preprocessor statement in C?
References/Further Reading
Iverson, K. E. (1962, May). A programming language. In Proceedings of the
May 1-3, 1962, spring joint computer conference (pp. 345-351).
Shieber, S. (1984). The design of a computer language for linguistic
information. In Proceedings of the Tenth International Conference on
Computational Linguistics Association for Computational Linguistics.
Bell, Eona, and David Potter, “Computer Applications for People with
Autism,” 2001.
http://www.nas.org.uk/nas/jsp/polopoly.jsp?d=303a=3276.
Pierce, B. C. (2002). Types and programming languages. MIT Press
Brain, Marshall, “How computer mice work,” 2004.
http://www.howstuffworks.com/
mouse.htm.
Da Cruz, Frank, “Herman Hollerith,” 2004.
http://www.columbia.edu/acis/history/
hollerith.html.
Dowler, Mike, “Beginners Guides: Legally Copying Software and Music,” PC
Stats,
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2003. http://www.pcstats.com/articleview.cfm?articleid=868.
Fernandes, Luis, “A Brief History of the Abacus,” 2003.
http://www.ee.ryerson.ca:8080/
~elf/abacus/history.html.
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Study Session 9: Looping Structures
Introduction
Loops are among the most basic and powerful programming concepts. A
loop in a computer program is an instruction that repeats until a specified
condition is reached. In a loop structure, the loop asks a question. If the
answer requires action, it is executed. The same question is asked again
and again until no further action is required. Each time the question is
asked, it is called an iteration. A computer programmer who needs to use
the same lines of code many times in a program can use a loop to save
time. Just about every programming language includes the concept of a
loop.
Learning Outcomes (LOs)
By the end of this session, you should be able to:
9.1.Understand working function of looping statements in C
9.2. Understand the differences between each looping statements in
9.3. Understand differences between Break and Continue
9.4. Understand the working function of a goto statement
9.1 Loop Statement
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Loop statements are used to execute the statements repeatedly
as long as an expression is true. When the expression becomes
false, the control is transferred out of the loop. There are three
kinds of loops in C, they are while loop, do-while loop, and for loop.
9.1.1 While statement
While loop will be executed as long as the exp is true.
Syntax:
while (exp)
statements;
The statements will be executed repeatedly as long as the exp is
true. If the exp is false, then the control is transferred out of the
while loop.
Example:
int digit = 1;
While (digit <=5) FALSE
printf (“%d”, digit);
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TRUE Cond Exp
Statements; ++digit;
The while loop is top tested i.e., it evaluates the condition before
executing statements in the body. Then it is called an entry control loop.
9.1.2 do-while statement
The do-while loop evaluates the condition after the execution of
the statements in the body.
Syntax:
do
Statement; While<exp>;
Here also, the statements will be executed as long as the exp value
is true. If the expression is false the control comes out of the loop.
Example:
-int
d=1;
do
printf (“%d”, d); FALSE
++d;
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} while (d<=5);
TRUE Cond Exp
statements;
exit
The statement within the do-while loop will be executed at least
once. So the do-while loop is called a bottom tested loop.
9.1.3 for statement
The for loop is used to execute the structure a number of times.
The for loop includes three expressions. First expression specifies
an initial value for an index (initial value), second expression that
determines whether or not the loop is continued (conditional
statement) and a third expression used to modify the index
(increment or decrement) of each pass.
Note: Generally, a for loop is used when the number of iteration is
known in advance.
Syntax:
for (exp1;exp2;exp3)
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Statement –1;
Statement – 2;
} —————; FALSE
exp2 —————;
Statement - n; TRUE
exp3
Statements;
Exit
loop
exp1
start
Where expression-1 is used to initialise the control variable. This
expression is only run once, at the start of the loop.
Where expression-2 is a logical expression. If expression-2 is
true, the statements will be executed, otherwise, the loop will be
terminated. This expression is evaluated before every execution of
the statement.
Where expression-3 is an increment or decrement expression,
after executing the statements, the control is transferred back to
expression-3 and updated. There are different formats available
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in a for loop. Some of the expressions in a loop can be omitted.
Format - I
for( ; exp2; exp3
) Statements;
In this format the initialization expression (i.e., exp1) is omitted.
The initial value of the variable can be assigned outside of the for
loop.
Example 1
int i = 1;
for( ; i<=10;
i++ ) printf
(“%d \n”, i);
Format - II
for( ; exp2 ; )
Statements;
In this format, the initialization and increment or
decrement expressions (i.e., expression-1 and
expression-3) are omitted. The exp-3 can be given in the
statement part.
Example 2
int i = 1;
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for( ; i<=10; )
printf (“%d
\n”,i); i++;
Format - III
for( ; ; )
Statements;
In this format the three expressions are omitted. The loop itself
assumes the expression-2 is true. So, the statements will be
executed infinitely.
Example 3
int i = 1;
for ( ; i<=10; )
printf (“%d
\n”,i); i++;
9.2 Nested Looping Statements
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Many applications require nesting of the loop statements, allowing
one statement to be embedded within another loop statement.
9.2.1 Definition of Nesting
Nesting can be defined as the method of embedding one control
structure into another control structure.
While making the control structure reside within another, the
inner and outer control structures may be of the same type or may
not be of the same type. But, it is essential for us to ensure that
one control structure is completely embedded within another.
/*program to implement nesting*/
#include <stdio.h>
main()
int a,b,c,
for (a=1,a< 2, a++)
printf (“%d”,a)
for (b=1,b<=2,b++)
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print f(%d”,b)
for (c=1,c<=2,c++)
print f( “ My Name is Sunny \n”);
9.3 Multi-Objective Loops
For effective handling of the loop structures, C allows the
following types of control break statements, break and continue
statements.
9.3.1 Break Statement
The break statement is used to terminate the control in loops or to
exit from a switch. It can be used within a while, do-while, for.
The general format is : break;
If a break statement is included in a while, do-while or for then
control will immediately be transferred out of the loop when the
break statement is encountered.
Example
for ( ; ; ) normal loop
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break Condition
within loop
scanf (“%d”,&n); if ( n < -1)
break;
sum = sum + n;
9.3.2 The Continue Statement
The continue statement is used to bypass the remainder of the
current pass through a loop. The loop does not terminate when a
continue statement is encountered. Rather, the remaining loop
statements are skipped, and the loop proceeds directly to the
next pass through the loop. The “continue” can be included within
a while, a do-while and a for loop statement.
General form : continue;
The continue statement is used for the inverse operation of the break
statement .
Condition with in loop
Remaining part
of loop continue
Example
while (x<=100)
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if (x <= 0)
printf (“zero or negative value found \n”);
continue;
The above program will execute only if a positive number is passed
as the variable.; whenever a zero or negative value is encountered,
the message will be displayed, and it will continue the same loop
as long as the given condition is satisfied.
9.4 Differences between Break and Continue statements
Table 9.1: Differences between break and continue
Break Continue
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1. Break is a key word 1. Continue is a keyword
used to terminate the loop used for
or exit from the block. The containing the next
control jumps to next iteration of the loop
statement after the loop or
block 2. This statement when
2. Break statements can occurs in a loop does not
be used with for, while, terminate it rather skips
do-while, and switch the statements after this
statements. When break is continue statement and
used in nested loops, then the control goes for next
only the innermost loop is iteration. ‘Continue’ can be
terminated. used with for, while and do-
while loop.
3. Syntax:{ statement1; 3. Syntax: {
statement2; statement3; statement1;
break;} continue; statement
2; statement3; break; }
4. Example :Switch ( 4. Example:- I = 1,
choice){ Case ‘y’: j=0;While( i<= 7){ I = I + 1;
printf(“yes”); break; Case ‘n’: If(( I = = 6) Continue; j = j +
printf(“NO”); break;} 1;}
5. When the case 5. In the above loop,
matches with the choice when the value of ‘ i'
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entered, the corresponding becomes 6 , the continue
case block gets executed. statement is executed. So,
When the ‘break’ statement j= j+1 is skipped and control
is executed, the control is transferred to the
jumps out of the switch beginning of the while loop.
statement.
9.5 Unconditional Branching (goto Statement)
The goto statement is used to alter the program execution sequence by
transferring the control to some other part of the program.
Syntax
Where label is an identifier used to label the target statement to
which control would be transferred, the target statement will
appear as:
Syntax
goto<label>;
label : statements;
Example 1
#include
<stdio.h>
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main();
inta,b;
printf (“Enter the two numbers”);
scanf (“%d %d”,&a,&b);
if (a>b)
gotobig;
else
gotosmall;
big :printf (“big value is %d”,a);
gotostop;
small :printf (“small value is %d”,b);
gotostop; stop}
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Practice Programs
1. Write a C program to find out the smallest
value among A, B,C.
Ans:
include
<stdio.h> int
a,b,c;
clrscr();
scanf(%d %d %d, &a, &b, &c);
if (a<b)
if(a<c)
printf(“a is small/n”)
else
02. Write a ‘C’ program for 5th multiplication table
with the help of goto statement.
Ans.
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
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int num = 5;
int i = 1;
loop:
printf("%d x %d = %d\n", num,
i, num * i);
i++;
if (i <= 10) {
goto loop;
return 0;}
03. Write a ‘C’ program to find the greatest among
three numbers.
Ans:
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int num1, num2, num3;
printf("Enter three numbers: ");
scanf("%d %d %d", &num1, &num2, &num3);
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if (num1 >= num2 && num1 >= num3) {
printf("%d is the greatest.\n", num1);
else if (num2 >= num1 && num2 >= num3) {
printf("%d is the greatest.\n", num2);
else {
printf("%d is the greatest.\n", num3);
return 0;}
Conclusion
This session introduced the students to branching statements in C,
Looping statements in C and break and continue statements. The goto
statement was also examined in this session.
Summary
In this session, you have learned to:
1. Understand working function of Branching statements in C
2. Understand working function of Looping statements in C
3. Understand differences between Break and Continue
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Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ)
SAQ9.1. How can looping statements in C, such as "for" or "while,"
be used to repeatedly execute a block of code until a specific
condition is met?(Tests learning outcome 9.1)
SAQ9.2. What are some common pitfalls or mistakes to avoid when
working with looping statements in C to ensure efficient and
error-free code execution?(Tests learning outcome 9.1)
SAQ9.3. Greatly state and explain the difference between for loop
and while loop(Test learning outcome 9.2)
SAQ9.4. Purpose of the goto statement with an example.(Tests
learning outcome 9.4)
Self-Assessment Answers (SAA)
SAA9.1. Looping statements in C, such as "for" or "while," allow you
to repeatedly execute a block of code until a specific condition is
met. With a "for" loop, you define an initialization statement, a
condition that determines whether the loop should continue, and
an increment or decrement statement that modifies the loop
variable. The loop will execute the block of code as long as the
condition remains true. Similarly, a "while" loop checks the condition
before executing the code block and continues until the condition
becomes false.
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SAA9.2. When working with looping statements in C, it is essential
to be aware of potential pitfalls and mistakes to ensure efficient and
error-free code execution. Some common points to consider are:
Infinite loops: Be cautious of accidentally creating infinite loops
where the loop condition never becomes false. It can lead to the
program getting stuck and not progressing further.
Initialization and termination conditions: Ensure proper initialization
and termination conditions are set for your loop. Incorrect
initialization or termination conditions may cause unexpected
behaviour or incorrect results.
Increment or decrement statements: Carefully choose the
increment or decrement statements within your loop. Incorrectly
modifying the loop variable can result in undesired outcomes or
logical errors.
SAA9.3. The main differences between the "for" loop and the
"while" loop in C are:
Syntax: The syntax of a "for" loop includes an initialization
statement, a condition, and an increment or decrement statement,
all within the loop declaration. In contrast, a "while" loop only
consists of a condition without any explicit initialization or
increment/decrement statements.
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Example "for" loop:
for (initialization; condition; increment/decrement) {
// code to be executed
Example "while" loop:
while (condition) {
// code to be executed
Initialization: The "for" loop allows you to initialise a loop variable
within the loop declaration itself. This initialization statement is
executed only once at the beginning of the loop. The "while" loop
requires you to initialise the loop variable before the loop starts.
Condition Checking: In a "for" loop, the condition is evaluated
before each iteration. If the condition is true, the loop body is
executed. In a "while" loop, the condition is evaluated at the
beginning of each iteration. If the condition is false, the loop body is
not executed at all.
Increment/Decrement: The "for" loop provides a convenient way to
specify the increment or decrement of a loop variable within the
loop declaration. This statement is executed after each iteration of
the loop body. In a "while" loop, you need to manually include the
increment or decrement statement within the loop body.
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Flexibility: The "for" loop is often used when you know the exact
number of iterations or want a concise loop structure. It is
commonly used for iterating over arrays or performing a specific
number of iterations. The "while" loop is more flexible and suitable
when the number of iterations is not known in advance or when the
loop condition is complex and cannot be easily expressed within
the loop declaration.
SAA9.4. The "goto" statement in C is a control transfer statement
that allows you to jump to a specific labelled point in the code. It is
considered a controversial statement and generally discouraged in
modern programming practices due to its potential to create
confusing and hard-to-maintain code. However, there are certain
situations where the "goto" statement can be useful, such as
breaking out of nested loops or handling error conditions.
Here's an example to demonstrate the purpose of the "goto"
statement:
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int number;
printf("Enter a positive number: ");
scanf("%d", &number);
if (number <= 0) {
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printf("Error: Invalid input.\n");
goto end;
printf("Countdown:\n");
while (number > 0) {
printf("%d\n", number);
number--;
if (number == 5) {
printf("Aborting countdown due to a special condition.\n");
goto end;
printf("Countdown complete.\n");
end:
printf("Program execution has reached the end.\n");
return 0;
In this example, the user is asked to enter a positive number. If the
user enters a non-positive number (<= 0), an error message is
printed, and the program jumps to the "end" label using the "goto"
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statement. It bypasses the remaining code in the "if" condition and
the "while" loop, proceeding directly to the end of the program.
The use of the "goto" statement here provides a straightforward
way to handle the error condition and exit the program without
duplicating code or introducing additional control variables.
However, it is important to use the "goto" statement judiciously and
consider alternative approaches, such as using conditional
statements or function calls, whenever possible to improve code
readability and maintainability.
Tutor-Marked Assignment
1. What is a nested loop?
2. Write the syntax of the while statement.
3. Write the syntax of for… loop statement
4. Write the syntax for the do loop control structure.
5. Write short notes on the goto statement?
6. Mention the difference between a while loop and a do... while loop.
References/Further Reading
Iverson, K. E. (1962, May). A programming language. In Proceedings of the
May 1-3, 1962, spring joint computer conference (pp. 345-351).
Shieber, S. (1984). The design of a computer language for linguistic
information. In Proceedings of the Tenth International Conference on
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Computational Linguistics Association for Computational Linguistics.
Bell, Eona, and David Potter, “Computer Applications for People with
Autism,” 2001.
http://www.nas.org.uk/nas/jsp/polopoly.jsp?d=303a=3276.
Pierce, B. C. (2002). Types and programming languages. MIT Press
Brain, Marshall, “How computer mice work,” 2004.
http://www.howstuffworks.com/
mouse.htm.
Da Cruz, Frank, “Herman Hollerith,” 2004.
http://www.columbia.edu/acis/history/
hollerith.html.
Dowler, Mike, “Beginners Guides: Legally Copying Software and Music,” PC
Stats,
2003. http://www.pcstats.com/articleview.cfm?articleid=868.
Fernandes, Luis, “A Brief History of the Abacus,” 2003.
http://www.ee.ryerson.ca:8080/
~elf/abacus/history.html
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Study Session 10: Functions in C
Introduction
An experienced programmer divides any large (lengthy) program
into parts, and then manages those parts to be solved one by one.
This method of programming is intended to organise the typical
work in a systematic manner. This aspect is practically achieved in
the C language through the concept known as ‘Modular
Programming’.
The entire program is divided into a series of modules, and each
module is intended to perform a particular task. The detailed work
to be solved by the module is described in the module (sub
program) only, and the main program only contains a series of
modules that are to be executed. The division of a main program
into a set of modules and assigning various tasks to each module
depends on the programmer’s efficiency.
Where there is a need for us to repeatedly execute one block of
statements in one place of the program, loop statements can be
used. But, a block of statements needs to be repeatedly executed
in many parts of the program, then repeated coding as well as
wastage of the vital computer resource memory will occur. If we
adopt modular programming techniques, these disadvantages
can be eliminated. The modules incorporated in C are called
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functions, and each function in the program is meant for doing a
specific task. C functions are easy to use and very efficient.
Learning Outcomes (LOs)
By the end of this session, you should be able to:
10.1. Define a Function
10.2. Stress on Return statement
10.3. Write programs using function call techniques.
10.4. Function prototype
10.5. Differentiate Local and Global variables
10.6. Purpose of recursion and how to use it.
10.1 Definition of Function
A function can be defined as a subprogram that is meant to do a
specific task.
In a C program, a function definition will have a name, a
parentheses pair containing zero or more parameters, and a body.
The parameters used in the parenthesis need to be declared with
type, and if they are not declared, they will be considered of
integer type.
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The general form of the function is :
function type name (<arg1,arg2,arg3, ————,argn>)
data type arg1, arg2,;
data type argn;
body of function;
——————————
——————————
——————————
return (<something>);
From the above structure, the main components of function are:
• Return type
• Function name
• Function body
• Return statement
10.1.1 Return Type
Refers to the type of value it would return to the calling portion of
the program. It can have any of the basic data types such as int,
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float, char, etc. When a function is not supposed to return any
value, it may be declared as type void
Example
void function name();
int function name();
char function name ();
10.1.2 Function Name
The function name can be any name conforming to the syntax
rules of the variable.
A function name is relevant to the function's operation.
Example
output( );
read
data( )
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Formal arguments
The arguments are called formal arguments (or) formal
parameters, because they represent the names of data items
that are transferred into the function from the calling portion of
the program.
Any variable declared in the body of a function is said to be local to
that function, other variables which were not declared either
arguments or in the function body, are considered “global” to the
function and must be defined externally.
Example
int biggest (int a, int b)
————————————
————————————
————————————
return( );
a, b are the formal arguments.
10.1.3 Function Body
The function body is a compound statement that defines the
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action to be taken by the function. It should include one or more
“return” statements in order to return a value to the calling
portion of the program.
Example
int biggest(int a, int b)
if ( a > b)
return(a);
body of function.
else
return(b);
Every C program consists of one or more functions. One of these
functions must be called main. Execution of the program will always begin
by carrying out the instructions in main. Additional functions will be
subordinate to the main. If a program contains multiple functions, their
definitions may appear in any order, though they must be independent of
one another. That is, one function definition can’t be embedded within
another.
Generally, a function will process information that is passed to it
from the calling portion of the program and return a single value.
Information is passed to the function via arguments (parameters)
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and returned via the “return” statement.
Some functions accept information but do not return anything
(ex: printf()) whereas other functions (ex: scanf()) return
multiple values.
10.1.4 The Return Statement
Every function subprogram in C will have a return statement. This
statement is used in function subprograms to return a value to the
calling program/function. This statement can appear anywhere
within a function body, and we may have more than one return
statement inside a function.
The general format of return statement is:
return;
(or)
return (expression);
If no value is returned from the function to the calling program,
then there is no need for a return statement to be present inside
the function.
10.2 Programs using function Call Techniques
Example 1:
Write a program to find factorial to the given positive integer
,using function technique.
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Ans:
# include <stdio.h>
main( )
int n;
printf ( “ Enter any positive number\n”);
scanf( “%d”, &n);
printf( “ The factorial of %d s %d \n”,fact (n));
fact( i) int I;
int j; f = 1 ;
for ( j = I; j>0; j - -) f = f * I;
return ( f ) ;
In the above program, the function with the name ‘fact’ is called by
the main program. The function fact is called with n as a
parameter. The value is returned through variable f to the main
program.
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Example 2:
Write a program to find the value of f(x) as f(x) = x 2 + 4, for the
given value of x. Make use of the function technique.
Ans:
# include <stdio.h> main( )
f ( );
f()
{ int x,y ;
printf( “ Enter value of x \n”);
scanf( “ %d”, & x );
y = (x * x + 4);
printf ( “ The value of f (x) id %d \n”, y ) ;
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10.3 Differences between Functions and Procedures
Table 10.1: Difference between procedures and functions
Procedure
Function
1. Procedure is 1. Functions is a sub
a sub program program which is
which is intended for specific
included within tasks. Eg. sqrt()
the main
program.
2. Procedure 2. Functions may or
doesn't return may not return a value.
a value.
3. Procedure 3. Function once
cannot be called defined can be called
again and again. any where n number of
times.
4. In functions both
4. Global
local and global
variables
variables can be used.
cannot be used
in procedures.
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5. Procedures 5. Functions can be
can be writ- written in modular
ten only in programming such as
procedural C, C++
pro- gramming
such as Dbase,
Foxpro.
10.4 Advantages of Function
1. Easy to write a correct small function
2. Easy to read and debug a function.
3. Easier to maintain or modify such a function
4. Small functions tend to be self documenting and highly readable
5. It can be called any number of times in any place with
different parameters.
Storage class
A variable’s storage class explains where the variable will be
stored, its initial value, and the life of the variable.
Iteration
The block of statements executed repeatedly using loops is called
Iteration.
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Categories of Functions
A function, depending on, whether arguments are present or not
and a value is returned or not.
A function may belong to one of the following types.
1. Function with no arguments and no return values.
2. Function with arguments and no return values.
3. Function with arguments and return values
10.5 Advanced Features of Functions
1. Function Prototypes
2.Calling functions by value or by reference
3.Recursion.
10.5.1 Function Prototypes
The user defined functions may be classified as three ways based
on the formal arguments passed and the usage of the return
statement.
1. Functions with no arguments and no return value
2.Functions with arguments no return value
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3.Functions with arguments and return value.
Functions with no arguments and no return value
A function is invoked without passing any formal arguments from
the calling portion of a program and the function does not return
any value to the called function. There is no communication
between the calling portion of a program and a called function
block.
Example:
#include <stdio.h>
main()
void message( ); Function declaration
message( ); Function calling
void message( )
printf (“GOVT JUNIOR COLLEGE \n”);
printf (“\t HYDERABAD”);
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Function with arguments and no return value
This type of function passes some formal arguments to a function,
but the function does not return any value to the caller. It is any
one way data communication between a calling portion of the
program and the function block.
Example
#include <stdio.h>
main()
void square(int);
printf (“Enter a value for n \n”);
scanf (“%d”,&n);
square(n);
void square (int n)
int value;
value = n * n;
printf (“square of %d is %d “,n,value);
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Function with arguments and return value
The third type of function passes some formal arguments to a
function from a calling portion of the program and the computer
value is transferred back to the caller. Data is communicated
between the calling portion and the function block.
Example:
#include <stdio.h>
main()
int square (int);
int value;
printf (“enter a value
for n \n”); scanf(“%d”,
&n);
value = square(n);
printf (“square of %d is %d “,n, value);
int square(int n)
int p;
p = n * n;
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return(p);
The keyword "void" can be used as a type specifier when defining
a function that does not return anything or when the function
definition does not include any arguments.
The presence of this keyword is not mandatory, but it is good
programming practice to make use of this feature.
Actual and Formal Parameters (or) Arguments
Function parameters are the means of communication between
the function declaration and the function call. The parameters
may be classified into two groups.
1. Formal Parameters
2. Actual Parameters
1. Formal Parameters
The formal parameters are the parameters given in the
function declaration and function definition. The actual
parameters take the place of the formal parameters when
calling the function.
2. Actual Parameters
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The parameters appearing in the function call are referred
to as actual parameters. The actual arguments may be
expressed as constants, single variables, or more complex
expressions. Each actual parameter must be of the same
data type as its corresponding formal parameters.
Example
#include <stdio.h>
// Function declaration with parameters
int sum(int num1, int num2);
int main() {
int a, b, result;
printf("Enter two numbers: ");
scanf("%d %d", &a, &b);
// Function call with arguments
result = sum(a, b);
printf("The sum of %d and %d is %d\n", a, b, result);
return 0;
// Function definition with parameters
int sum(int num1, int num2) {
int sum = num1 + num2;
return sum;
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In this example, we have a function sum that takes two parameters: num1
and num2, both of type int. The sum function calculates the sum of the
two numbers and returns the result.
In the main() function, we declare variables a, b, and result. We prompt
the user to enter two numbers using printf and scanf, and then pass
those numbers as arguments to the sum function when calling it.
Inside the sum function, the received values for num1 and num2 are used
to perform the addition operation, and the result is stored in the sum
variable, which is then returned.
Finally, in the main() function, we print the result obtained from the sum
function using printf.
Function parameters allow us to pass values to functions, and arguments
are the actual values that are passed to the function when calling it.
Local and Global variables:
The variables may be classified as local or global variables.
Local Variable
The variables defined can be accessed only within the
block in which they are declared. These variables are called
“Local” variables
Example
funct (int ,int j)
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intk,m;
————;
————;
The integer variables k and m are defined within a function block
of the “funct()”. All the variables to be used within a function
block must be either defined at the beginning of the block or
before using in the statement. Local variables refer only to the
particular part of a block of a function.
Global Variable
Global variables are defined outside the main function block.
Global variables are not contained in a single function. Global
variables that are recognized in two or more functions. Their
scope extends from the point of definition through the remainder
of the program.
10.5.2 Calling functions by value or by reference
The arguments are sent to the functions, and their values are
copied into the corresponding function. This is a sort of
information exchange between the calling function and the called
function. This is known as "parameter passing". It is a mechanism
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through which arguments are passed to the called function for the
required processing. There are two methods of parameter
passing.
1. Call by Value
2. Call by reference.
Call by value:
When the values of arguments are passed from a calling function
to a called function, these values are copied into the called
function. If any changes are made to these values in the called
function, there are no changes to the original values within the
calling function.
Example
#include <stdio.h>
main();
int n1,n2,x;
int cal_by_val();
N1 = 6;
N2 = 9;
printf( n1 = %d and n2= %d\n”, n1,n2);
X = cal_by_Val(n1,n2);
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Printf( n1 = %d and n2= %d\n”,
n1,n2); Printf(“ x= %d\n”, x);
/ * end of main*/
/*function to illustrate call
by value*/
Cal_by_val(p1,p2)
int p1,p2;
int sum;
Sum = (p1 + p2); P1 + = 2;
P2* = p1;
printf( p1 = %d and p2= %d\n”, p1,p2);
return( sum);
When the program is executed the output will be displayed N1 = 6 and n2
=9
P1 = 8 and p2 = 72
N1 = 6 and n2 = 9
X = 15
There is no change in the values of n1 and n2 before
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and after the function is executed.
Call by Reference:
In this method, the actual values are not passed, instead, their
addresses are passed. There is no copying of values since their
memory locations are referenced. If any modification is made to
the values in the called function, then the original values get
changed in the calling function. Passing addresses requires
knowledge of pointers.
Example
This program accepts a one-dimensional array of integers and
sorts them in ascending order. [This program involves passing the
array to the function].
# include <stdio.h>
main();
int num[20], I,max;
void sort_nums();
printf( “ enter the size of the array”\n”);
scanf(“%d”, &max);
for( i=0; i<max;I++)
sort_nums(num,max) /* Function
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reference*/
printf(“sorted numbers are as follows\n”);
for(i=0;i<max;I++)
printf(“%3d\n”,num[i]);
/* end of the main*/
/* function to sort list of numbers*/
Void sort_nums(a,n) Int a[],n;
Int I,j,dummy; For(i=0;i<n;i++)
For(j=0; j<n; j++)
If ( a[i] >a[j])
Dummy = a[i];
a[i] = a[j];
a[j] = dummy;
}
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10.5.3 Recursion
One of the special features of C is its support for recursion. Very
few computer languages will support this feature.
Recursion can be defined as the process by which a function can
call itself. The function that calls itself again and again, either
directly or indirectly,is known as a recursive function.
The normal function is usually called the main( ) function,
because of its name. But, the recursive function will be called by
itself depending on the condition.
For Example:
main ( )
f1( ) ; ——— Function called by main
——————
——————
——————
f1( ) ; ——— Function definition
——————
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——————
——————
f1( ) ; ——— Function called by itself
In the above, the main ( ) function is calling a function named f1( )
by invoking it with its name. But, inside the function definition f1( ),
there is another invocation of the function, and it is the function
f1( ) again.
Examples on Recursion
Example 1 :
Write a program to find the factorial of a given non-negative
integer using a recursive function.
Ans:
#include<stdio.h>
main ( )
int result, n;
printf( “ Enter any non-negative integer\n”);
scanf ( “ %d”, & n);
result = fact(n);
Page 188 of 198
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printf ( “ The factorial of %d is %d \n”, n, result);
fact( n )
int n;
int i ; i = 1;
if ( i = = 1)
return ( i);
else
i = i * fact ( n - 1);
return ( i );
Example 2:
Write a ‘C’ program to generate Fibonacci series up to a limit using
recursion.
Ans:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
Page 189 of 198
Introduction to Problem Solving - CSC 102
int Fibonacci (int);
void main ( )
int i, n; clrscr ( );
printf (“Enter no. of Elements to be generated” \n);
scanf (“%d”, &n);
for (i=1; i<n; i++)
printf (“%d”, Fibonacci (i));
getch( );
int Fibonacci (int n)
int fno;
if (n= =1)
return 1;
else
if (n= =2);
return 1;
else
fno=Fibonacci (n-1) + Fibonacci (n-2);
else
Page 190 of 198
Introduction to Problem Solving - CSC 102
return fno;
Conclusion
This session introduced the students to the function definition, return
statement, programs using function call techniques, function prototypes,
and local and global variables. The recursion technique was also
examined in this session.
Summary
In this session, you have learned to:
1. Define a Function
2. Stress on Return statement
3. Write programs using function call techniques.
4. Function prototype
5. Differentiate Local and Global variables
6. Recursion.
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ)
SAQ10.1. What is the purpose of a function in a C program? (Tests
Page 191 of 198
Introduction to Problem Solving - CSC 102
learning outcome 10.1)
SAQ10.2. Why is a return statement needed in a C program? (Tests
learning outcome 10.2)
SAQ10.3. Write two C programs that have functions. (Tests learning
outcome 10.3)
SAQ10.4. What is recursion in C?, and show an example. (Tests
learning outcome 10.6)
Self-Assessment Answers (SAA)
SAA10.1. The purpose of a function in a C program is:
● Organise code into smaller units for better readability and
maintenance.
● Promote code reusability by allowing functions to be called
multiple times.
● Encapsulate complex operations and hide implementation
details.
● Accept input parameters to customise function behaviour.
● Provide output to the calling code through return values.
SAA10.2. The return statement is needed because:
● Provide a result or computed value from a function back to
the calling code.
● Control the flow of execution within a function.
Page 192 of 198
Introduction to Problem Solving - CSC 102
● Terminate the function's execution and clean up resources.
● Indicate and handle error conditions by returning specific
values.
SAA10.3. Program 1: Finding the Maximum of Two Numbers:
#include <stdio.h>
// Function to find the maximum of two numbers
int findMax(int num1, int num2) {
if (num1 > num2)
return num1;
else
return num2;
int main() {
int a, b;
printf("Enter two numbers: ");
scanf("%d %d", &a, &b);
// Call the function to find the maximum
int max = findMax(a, b);
printf("The maximum of %d and %d is: %d\n", a, b, max);
Page 193 of 198
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return 0;
Program 2: Calculating the Factorial of a Number
#include <stdio.h>
// Function to calculate the factorial of a number
int factorial(int n) {
if (n == 0)
return 1;
else
return n * factorial(n - 1);
int main() {
int num;
printf("Enter a number: ");
scanf("%d", &num);
// Call the function to calculate the factorial
int fact = factorial(num);
printf("The factorial of %d is: %d\n", num, fact);
Page 194 of 198
Introduction to Problem Solving - CSC 102
return 0;
In the first program, the findMax function takes two integers as
input and returns the maximum of the two numbers. The main
function prompts the user to enter two numbers, calls the findMax
function, and displays the result.
In the second program, the factorial function recursively calculates
the factorial of a given number. The main function prompts the user
to enter a number, calls the factorial function, and displays the
factorial.
SAA10.4. Recursion in C refers to the process of a function calling
itself directly or indirectly. It allows a function to solve a problem by
breaking it down into smaller, similar subproblems. Each recursive
call works on a smaller instance of the problem until it reaches a
base case, which is a condition that terminates the recursion.
Here's an example of a recursive function in C that calculates the
factorial of a number:
#include <stdio.h>
// Recursive function to calculate the factorial of a number
int factorial(int n) {
// Base case: factorial of 0 is 1
Page 195 of 198
Introduction to Problem Solving - CSC 102
if (n == 0)
return 1;
// Recursive case: multiply n with factorial of (n-1)
else
return n * factorial(n - 1);
int main() {
int num;
printf("Enter a number: ");
scanf("%d", &num);
// Call the recursive function to calculate the factorial
int fact = factorial(num);
printf("The factorial of %d is: %d\n", num, fact);
return 0;
In this example, the factorial function calculates the factorial of a
number using recursion. It has a base case where if the input
number n is 0, it returns 1, indicating the termination condition.
Otherwise, it makes a recursive call to factorial(n - 1) and multiplies
Page 196 of 198
Introduction to Problem Solving - CSC 102
it by n. This recursive call continues until it reaches the base case,
and then the results are propagated back through the call stack to
calculate the final factorial.
Tutor-Marked Assignment
1. What is a function? Write its syntax.
2. What is an I/O function? List different types of I/O functions
3. What are the advantages of functions?
4. Write differences between Global and Local variables.
5. List categories of functions
6. What is storage class?
7. What is Iteration
8. What is recursion
References/Further Reading
Iverson, K. E. (1962, May). A programming language. In Proceedings of the
May 1-3, 1962, spring joint computer conference (pp. 345-351).
Shieber, S. (1984). The design of a computer language for linguistic
information. In Proceedings of the Tenth International Conference on
Computational Linguistics. Association for Computational Linguistics.
Page 197 of 198
Introduction to Problem Solving - CSC 102
Bell, Eona, and David Potter, “Computer Applications for People with
Autism,” 2001.
http://www.nas.org.uk/nas/jsp/polopoly.jsp?d=303a=3276.
Pierce, B. C. (2002). Types and programming languages. MIT press.Press
Brain, Marshall, “How computer mice work,” 2004.
http://www.howstuffworks.com/
mouse.htm.
Da Cruz, Frank, “Herman Hollerith,” 2004.
http://www.columbia.edu/acis/history/
hollerith.html.
Dowler, Mike, “Beginners Guides: Legally Copying Software and Music,” PC
Stats,
2003. http://www.pcstats.com/articleview.cfm?articleid=868.
Fernandes, Luis, “A Brief History of the Abacus,” 2003.
http://www.ee.ryerson.ca:8080/
~elf/abacus/history
Page 198 of 198
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