ENVIRONMENTAL

SCIENCE
A Comprehensive Learning Module for General
Education (GE)- Environmental Science
Ivan C. Palarao
Course Description
This course begins with an introduction to the nature of Environmental Science as an
exploration environmental concepts and principle (in nature and the environment) and as an
application of inductive and deductive and deductive reasoning. By exploring this topic, students are
encouraged to go beyond the typical understanding of Environmental Science to have a fuller
understanding of the basic concepts and principles of Environmental Science
The course then proceeds to introduces the student to the features and the interaction in and
between of the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and the biosphere. Being an integral part of the
Environmental Science curriculum, this course includes topics on the relationship of human activity to
Earth features, particularly on those processes that are altered by and those identified environmental
issues/news in a global perspective that cause threat to man

Course Outcomes
1. Acquire knowledge on how natural resources relate to the economy and environment, both
currently and in the future.
2. Define the applying structure of ecology which constitutes the basics of the environmental
sciences.
3. Develop an inquiry skill on an environmental issue that concern life.
4. Understand the environmental problems associated with the pollution of the atmosphere,
water, the land surface and food chain.
5. Manage environmental risks and issues that affects the society
 UNIT I
INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

Learning Objectives
1. Understand the principles involved in Environmental Science
2. Describe the environment on its miniscule state
3. Define and explain the components in the exist in the ecosphere

BASIC CONCEPTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

Environmental Science is an interdisciplinary academic field the incorporates all branches of
science like natural and physical sciences (ecology, geology, engineering, physics, social sciences,
and etc.) to understand and to address the problems within the human system or the environment in
general. This academic discipline is quantitative in nature where it has applied and theoretical aspects
of various discipline and also becomes an influencing factor in politics around the world (Kte’pi,
2024). Further, this discipline is anchored to the effects of human to different systems in the
environment (terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems) and assist in creating ideas that would address the
problems caused by anthropogenic interference (Eric, n.d.).
Environmental science has principles that guides the discipline. According to Tong et al.,
(2011), there are four principles that guides the study of environmental science. These are the
following; systematic principle of environment, principle of environmental capacity, symbiosis
principle between human and environment, and entropy principle. These principles also have
subcomponents that governs the idea behind each principle.
Systematic principle of environment explains that all beings and objects that existed in the
environment shared the same principles and characteristics forming a system. This principle has
subcomponents that usher to its relevance to Environmental Science.
 Earth system is an organic whole. This explains that the environment is composed of water,
air, soil and organisms are connected and related to the maintenance and so as the flow of
material, energy, and information that existed within the environmental realm. The absence
of one element or any of the vital elements present in the environment would substantially
affect the entire cycle present in the environment. For example, the turbidity of water present
in the streams would affect the living organisms well-being present and so as the quantity of
microbes within that area. Additionally, soil contamination would also affect the living
microbiota in the soil and as its productivity for agriculture which also affects the provision
of the civilization.
 The components, structures and functions of environmental systems are diverse. The
environment is composed of different factors; the biotic (plant, animals, and
microorganisms), abiotic (water, soil, and rocks), geomorphological structures (mountains,
valleys, plains, and etc), biomes (forest, grasslands, and deserts), human structures (cities,
town, and or any human settlements). These formations may it be naturally occurring or
anthropogenically made possess diverse functions that has its own purpose.
 Environmental system is an open system. This emphasizes that the environment is the
sources of all the provision that we all have indulged from services to resources and also a
dumping site of all the waste product like energy, chemicals, and the organic ones. A good
example of this is the emission of CO2 to the atmosphere, fuels used in combustion is drawn
from nature which acquired through mining and subsequently released to the atmosphere
causing pollution. With this kind of process, this signifies that the environment is indeed
open and can be the source and pool of all waste that is released after metabolic and chemical
processes.
 Environmental system is a dynamic system. Earth’s system is changing through time, these
changes happened due to some factors that would excite the dynamics of environment may it
be climatic changes or intervention due to human civilization. Additionally, changes have
variations that various according to situations present it could be cyclical change and random
change, nonlinear change and linear change, gradual change and catastrophic change.
 Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ) 1:
1. What makes the Environmental Science interdisciplinary? How does the confluence
of disciplines help address the existing problems in the environment?

2. What does systematic principle of environment imply to?

3. How does diversity assist in achieving stability?

The Principle of Capacity is the second principle of environmental science where it

emphasizes the capacity of the planet to tolerate all human activities to the system. Environmental
capacity is among the services of the environment wherein the environment can handle all substantial
amount of waste or pollutants and sustain provisions to the human systems. The capacity of the
environment to tolerate all the introduced pollutants varies to the structure and complexity of the
environment, if the system is more complex and diverse, then it can handle all the perturbations to the
environment. Additionally, finiteness, variability and under-control are among factors involved in
environmental capacity.
 Environmental capacity is limited. Some of the resources present in the environment are finite
meaning that all these resources have limitation (e.g. fossil fuels, minerals, and gems) to if
acquired. Hence, resources that is finite in nature is subject to various environmental
assessment and monitoring.
 Environmental capacity is changeable. The capacity of the environment to cater all the
demand of the human civilization is fixed or has an absolute value on what status or how
much quantity of resources that we can exploit, however it can be modified at some through
manipulation through political rulings. Legislative rulings and politics can change governance
of these resources that would allow or maximize the sequestration of resources in in natural
setting hence changing the course of environmental capacity.
 Environmental capacity can be controlled with many anthropogenic methods. The capacity of
the environment can be maximized not just by modification of existing laws but through
incorporation and application of state of the art technologies and relevant engineering to
address the problem present in the environment that would maximize the capacity and
tolerance of the environment.

SAQ 2
1. Do you think that the laws passed in the Philippines relating to resource extraction and
utilization are strong enough to regulate rampant resource sequestration? Why or why
not?
 Symbiosis principle between human and environment. This principle was derived from the
concept Anton de Bary, a German mycologist on his introduced concept of “Symbiosis”. This concept
defines the interdependence of species within the environment to achieve the common goal of one
another (may it be for survival, reproduction and/or food sequestration), this interdependence
confluence can be analyzed through various field of sciences like natural and social sciences as this
co-existence involves not just biological likelihood of characteristics but also the principles and
ideologies of human that makes that co-existence possible to any other species that existed.
The lens of symbiosis is focused on the human being as part of the physical world. Human
being’s ability to connect to the world paved various possibilities such as for their survival, exchange
of energy, substances, and information. These process are inevitable since these environment is the
very foundation of the existence of human civilization throughout ages, however the effect of humans
to the environment is detrimental and pervasive. The concept of symbiosis of human and the
environment has been connected to harmony principle, the only principle that emphasizes the
sustainable development that reiterates the win-win relation between the two systems and impose
strategic-decisions to ensure the perpetual existence of the resources in the present during extraction
(employing strategic and sustainable practices) of minimal quantity that would meet the demands of
time without compromising the future of the generations to come. The symbiosis principle has two
aspects, the collaborative development between human and the environment, and the symbiosis
principle between human and the environment in achieving the collaborative development.
The collaborative development between human and the environment is another facet of
symbiosis which emphasizes the sustainable relationship of human and the environment in building
human development plan. This can be done by meticulously assessing the effects of various acts of
human to the environment and if the environment will be damaged or destroyed in future, the effects
will backfire to the human civilization as a consequence of such action. On the other side, the second
aspect of the symbiosis of human and environment is understating the severity of the actions of man
to the environment, possible mitigation to these actions, and possible measures to address these issues
through research of occurrence. By doing these, these would help in upholding sustainable symbiotic
and regenerative relationship between human and environment systems.
The entropy principle is governed by one of the laws of thermodynamics in which, entropy is
involved or the disorder in the system. Here, the disorder in the system is higher, the function will be
less robust as well. Conversely, if the entropy is less, then function is stronger and more effective. In
real world example apart from Physics, pollution and human disturbance is associated with higher
entropy that lessens the performance of the environmental services that would somehow help the
human civilization to flourish but due to the disorganization or disorder of the system, now is at stake.
But nonetheless the inputted value for entropy (could it be higher or lower) may vary according to the
classification of natural or anthropogenic actions.

SAQ 3
1. Write down your thoughts about the principle of symbiosis in 500 words.
Activity 1. Concept building and Synthesis

1. What are the principles of Environmental Science and how does these principles work
together in making Environmental Science an interdisciplinary course?

2. Among the principles, what principle best explain the current state of human connection to
the environment and how does this principle shapes the world leading to sustainable
development?

3. Drawn from ideas of the principles, create your own concept and explain your crafted ideas in
100 words.

ECOSYSTEM STRUCTURE
Ecosystem is an area in the biosphere where all living organisms (Biotic) and nonliving things
(Abiotic) are interacting with one another in a particular area (Britannica, 2024). The ecosystem has
biotic components which encompasses all living organisms such as plants, animals, microbes, and the
latter. On the other hand, the abiotic factors consist of all non-living factors in the of the Earth’s
system and these are the following; air, water, soil, sunlight, minerals, organic and inorganic matter,
energy and such. Do not be confused when you are asked about the non-living factors by answering
tables and chairs or so, it is just all about the elements that made all the living systems to thrive and
live. Likely the minimum requirement for existence. With the subsistence of the biotic factors to the
abiotic factors in vise-versa, life becomes possible and viable. The size of an ecosystem varies on its
size; may it be as small as a drop of water or as big as the entire word.

SAQ 4
1. Create your own definition of ecosystem.

2. Drawn from your constructed definition, compare and contrast it to the definition given and
identify its similarities in terms of variable you have used.

On Earth, there are three major types of ecosystem, the fresh water, ocean water, and the
terrestrial ecosystem. These ecosystems are interacting with one another forming biome. The later
geographical area where species lived in a particular climatic condition
Ocean ecosystem is the largest ecosystem in the world accounting 70 percent of saline water
that stretches from north, east, west, and south of the Earth’s cardinal direction. Ocean ecosystem is
composed of three types; shallow ocean, deep ocean water, deep ocean surfaces. Shallow ocean is hub
of multitude of marine species from fish to corals and is considered to be diverse in marine life forms,
deep ocean surface on the other hand is a place in the ocean where there is high concentration of food
like krill and planktons that makes this part sustainable to all marine species. These two divisions of
ocean system are considered to be as the most productive part of the ocean since photosynthesis will
commence on this part aided with aerobic respiration done by phytoplankton. Deep ocean surfaces on
the other hand is the deepest part of the ocean where deep sea creatures only exist on this part and is
less diverse compare to the latter divisions.
Fresh water ecosystem is smallest ecosystem among the rest accounting only 1.8 percent on
the Earths surface and is considered to by rarest in nature. This ecosystem covers lakes, rivers,
streams, springs, and other tributaries. This ecosystem is also diverse where it is a hub for various
aquatic animals and insects, fungi and bacteria.
Terrestrial ecosystem is an ecosystem on land. It is the home of multitude of flora and fauna.
This covers the entire forest in land, savannas, deserts, coniferous forests, deciduous forests, and
tundra. Consolidating all these terrestrial subsystems would form the largest cluster called biome that
has been known to the most diverse interns of ecosystems within its realm.
Among the distinct structure present in the ecosystem is the food
web and food chain, talking about food chain, it is the linear
representation of feeding present in the ecosystem (Figure 1). This chain
is composed of three organisms that makes the model working; the
producer, primary consumer, secondary consumer, and tertiary consumer
and each of this level is called the trophic level. Producer (Autotrophs) is
the one that makes their own food through the process of photosynthesis
(the food making process of plant) the will be utilized across level. Plants
with green pigments (often without green pigments but carried the
chemosynthetic process) falls under this category. Primary consumers
(heterotrophs; primary, secondary, and tertiary- organism that graze to
other organism) are ones that will consume the producers and the
organism that fall under is category are the herbivores. Secondary
consumers are the carnivores and the tertiary consumer are the apex
predators, an organism that is on the top of the food chain that does not
have predators. However, this model has its own down side in terms of
energy flow which will be discussed on the next lesson.
Food web is a complex food chain. It is non-liner compared to
food chain where organism of certain tropic structure can feed to another Figure 1. Food Chain
organism and is indeed considered
as holistic in nature (Figure 2). The structure of food web is
more stable compared to food chain since organisms can subsist
to other organism of another trophic level making the energy
flow stable compared to the latter model. Food chain is
considered to be holistic in nature as it depects interpendence
and co-existence between species in order to survive. Futher,
this models is a realistic discriptive model of feeding in
ecosystem compared to food chain where in it only dissectes
what is inside the food chain to comprehensively analyze the
Figure 2. Food Web feeding
relationship.
Food web has two types; the grazing food web
and the detrital or ditritus food web. The
grazing food web is the conventional food web
where there is plant and suceeded by the
cosumers (Figure 2). Detrital or detritus food
web on the other hand is the intermediate of the
grazing food web (Figure 3). Here, the process
begins with the decomposers or detritivours
recycling the dead matters drawn from the

Figure 3. Detrital/Detritus Food Web

grazing food web. The significance of detriviour in the ecosystem is that they are responsible in
recycling energy and organic matter back to the medium from which these resources are drawn from
making the process of the ecosystem continous, gradual, and self-sustaining.

SAQ 5
1. Determine the types of ecosystems present in the Philippines and catergorize the species
present in every ecosystems as flora and fauna.

2. Drawn from the data gathered from number 1, determine its trophic classification and indicate
the usual organism that they usually graze or consume.

Additional Readings
1. Ecologist Study the Interactions of Organisms and Their Environment
Can be accessed through this link: Ecologists Study the Interactions of Organisms and Their
Environment | Learn Science at Scitable (nature.com)
2. Food Chain and Food Webs
Can be accessed through this link: Food chains and food webs | WWF (panda.org)
3. Food Web: Concept and Applications
Can be accessed through this link: Food Web: Concept and Applications | Learn Science at
Scitable (nature.com)

ENERGY FLOW IN AN ECOSYSTEM

The concept of energy flow in the ecosystem is a product of the keen observation of naturalist
in the field. The concept of food chain and food web was first elucidated by Charles Elton in textbook
in year 1927. This book explicitly explains his expedition in the Arctic Islands of Spitzbergen
Archipelago, a place that is cold, absence of forage and highly prominent animals lurking around.
There, he established is place of observation of what would be the feeding behavior present in the
area. There he observed the foxes fed on birds. After observing, he arrived such an ingenious idea of
food web as he observed that the foxes do not just feed on single species but it also fed on polar bears.
Food cycle also emerged as Elton observed that the cycle of nutrient in the Arctic region where the
indestructible nutrients (nitrogen) through nitrogenous fertilizers which are scares in Arctic but he
postulated that these nutrients are from the remains and droppings of birds that will undergo cycle and
utilization through food chain and back to the system. Further, Elton also observed that big animals
are often to be observed compared to the smaller ones, then Elton plotted these species based on its
occurrence then he arrived with the pyramid of number of the Eltonian pyramid. It is a graphing style
where the organism that is numerously observed was placed on the lower part of the pyramid and so
on. Each layer of the pyramid represents the class of every organism (herbivore to carnivore) which
then becomes the trophic structure we have known now. Moreover, Elton also observed that most of
the predators are larger than their pray which he then deduced the principle of food size. This
principle explains that prays are smaller than the predators (this observation was based on the Eltonian
pyramid which he has created) which has something to do with the feeding and the morphology and
so as the behavior of feeding. However, the pyramids that Elton had created remains question for 15
years due to its uncertainty and inconsistency. Raymond Lindeman and G. E. Hutchinson had come
up with the with the modern idea relating to energy flow. They have deduced that food has calories
that should be consumed and not to be cycle back to the system. With this announcement that they
have made, this creates another perspective of food chains in confluence with the trophic level.
The flow energy in the ecosystem is governed the laws of thermodynamics: the first law of
thermodynamics (law of conservation) that states that energy cannot be created nor destroyed hence,
energy can be converted into any form of energy. The second law of thermodynamics (entropy) states
that there is energy reduction every conversion. This reduced energy or the loosed energy becomes
free to the system. Let us be reminded that the Sun is the principal source of energy and this ergay
The observation of Elton related to the rarity of the of species present in Spitzbergen is an
error in the system that construe to the second law of thermodynamics. The rarity of some species in
Spitzbergen was caused by the disorder, during the conversion of plant carbohydrate to animal
carbohydrate through metabolic process, the conversion is not 100% efficient and the energy becomes
lesser during conversion that is why animals becomes lesser depending on the class aside from the
producer. Note that the energy reduction during conversion process is from 80 to 90 percent and the
remaining 10 percent will proceed to subsequent conversion during grazing or consumption. Thus,
this explains the reason why animals in Spitzbergen during Elton’s expedition gets rare and rarer.

SAQ 6
1. For you, why is it that every conversion has 80%-90% reduction of energy? Is it possible that
during conversion, there’s no reduction will happened? If yes, what would be its effect?

2. In your community, create a food web that depicts the in interconnection of feeding and from
there, dissect each complex connection into food chain.

Additional Readings
1. Energy Flow and Primary Productivity
Can be accessed through this link: Energy flow & primary productivity (article) | Khan
Academy

2. Ecological Relationship and Energy Flow

Can be accessed through this link: Energy flow & primary productivity (article) | Khan
Academy

Activity 2. Recalling and Synthesis

1. Compare and contrast the difference between Eltonian pyramid and trophic level using Venn
diagram.

2. What would be the significance of John Elton’s observation and plotting of observable
species on the site? How does this breakthrough paves new idea about energy flow in the
ecosystem?

3. What will happen if there is no movement of energy that exists in the ecosystem? Will the
ecosystem productive and self-sustaining? Why or why not?

SOLAR ENERGY, CLIMATE AND WEATHER

Nature of Solar Energy
Sun is the main source of energy here on Earth. Sun releases energy in a form of solar
radiation, with an estimated amount of 1361 Wm-2 purely in a form of rays from the Sun. Earth
absorbs 70% of radiant energy from the Sun and the remaining energy is reflected back to the space
through the aid of clouds, seas, and or even the Earth’s surface (albedo). The absorbed energy from
the sun will be used to fuel the photosynthetic process of the plants, warm the planet (greenhouse
effect), and is responsible in the formation of climate and weather. Talking about climate and weather,
solar energy or radiant energy from the Sun plays substantially in climate and weather pattern in the
entire world. Solar energy which contains radiation that heats the atmosphere and causes global wind
pattern due to unequal solar energy allocation in the Earth’s surface (caused by the spherical shape of
the planet). Climate pertains to an atmospheric condition bound at a particular location or region of
the planet that last over a period of time. Weather on the other hand is a component of climate where
the condition last over a short period of time, may it be days or so depending on the atmospheric
condition prevails on that day. To note, climate change is not caused by the radiant energy produced
by the Sun but
The Earth’s Atmosphere
Atmosphere is considered as the blanket of the planet. This section of the planet consists of
mixture of gasses that makes the planet habitable by providing heat, provide protection from harmful
ultraviolet rays, source of breathable air, prevents the loss and gaining of heat through greenhouse
mechanism. Atmosphere is made out of various gasses that retains heat necessary for survival.
Nitrogen is the most abundant gas in the atmosphere accounting 78% of the total atmospheric gas
followed by oxygen which accounts 21%. The remaining less than 1% is a mixture of argon, carbon
dioxide, water vapor, and other trace gasses (these are the elements of the greenhouse effect).
The Earth’s atmosphere is composed of various layers that has its own function and
uniqueness and these are the following; the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and
the exosphere (Figure 5). Troposphere the lowest part of the atmosphere where the gasses present
there are highly dense. This at this layer, climate and weather occurs at this part because of the mixing
of gasses due some factors occurred at this part. The troposphere begins at the surface of the Earth,
note the height of this layer varies since Earth’s topographic relief varies. The height varies from
equatorial perspective to polar ones which corresponds to 11-12 miles (18-20km) and 5.5 miles (9km)
at 50°N and 50°S, and below four miles (6 km) high at the poles respectively. Stratosphere is the
second layer of the Earth where atmospheric activities is less making this part of the atmosphere calm
and stable. The height of this layer extends from 4-12 miles (6-20km) above Earth’s surface. Ozone
layer and 19 percent of Earth’s gasses and a trace amount of water vapor is present here. Above
stratosphere is the mesosphere, the height of this layer extends from around 31 miles (50km) above
the Earth’s surface to 53 miles (85km). The layers of gasses present here are denser as one goes down
(layer). The gasses here are dense making that makes this layer a shield against meteors as meteors
passes here will slowly melts
down and soon disintegrate.
Further, the layer that serve
as the boundary between
stratosphere and mesosphere
is called stratopause.
Thermosphere is the charged
layer of the atmosphere, this
layer absorbs high energy
ultraviolet and x-ray
radiation emitted from the
sun that makes this layer hot.
Exosphere, is the
intermediate layer. This
layer extends from about 375
miles (600 km) to 6,200
miles (10,000 km) above the
Earth and this layer houses
the satellites that orbits the
Figure 4. Layers of the Atmosphere earth.

SAQ 6.
1. For you, what would be the implication if the atmosphere has one or two layers? Expound
your answer.
Climate, Weather, and Global Climate Pattern
Climate is parallel to weather where the weather or certain atmospheric condition last over a
long period of time in a specific region of the Earth. The description of climate in a location of the
planet characterizes with temperature that is likely the same. Every location has different season that
is why there is climatic variation that existed across the planet. Talking about climate, scientist can
deduce the status of climate by analyzing the averages of precipitation, temperature, humidity,
sunshine, wind, and other measures of weather that occur.
Relating to climate, there are different factors affecting global climate and these are the
following factors; distance from the sea, ocean currents, direction of prevailing winds, shape of the
land, distance from the equator, and the El Nino phenomenon. The distance from the sea
(continentally) affects the climatic condition of a certain place. The farther the place or area from the
ocean or seas, the wetter and cooler the place is. This emphasizes that the central continent would
experiences wide range atmospheric condition due to the due to its distance to sea. Ocean currents
also has significant impact to climate, ocean can reduce or increase temperatures due to conviction.
Direction of prevailing winds also affects the climate since the origin of the wind (location) has
distinct temperature it bears as at travels heading to its location. Shape of the land or topographical
relief also plays a role in climate variation. The higher the location, the cooler the place is. This
happens because the air becomes thinner and it losses the ability to absorb heat hence leading to
cooler temperature. The distance from the equator also has impact to the climate. The farther the
distance from the equator, the more varied and more pronounce the climate is. El Nino or the El Nino
Southern Oscillation is the irregular heating of the surface water in the Pacific affecting winds and
rainfall of the Pacific. Due to this event, the ocean pumps heat to the atmosphere altering global
rainfall and wind pattern.
In the Philippines, there are two types of climate; tropical and maritime. This climate is
characterized by relatively high temperature, high humidity and abundant rainfall. This condition is
influenced by the location of the Philippines near Equator and Pacific Ocean where the condition is
tropical, humid and always experience erratic atmospheric condition.

SAQ 7.
1. What are the factors influencing climate?

2. What would be the effect if there is only one climate that prevails globally?

3. Among the factors, what factor/s that influence the climate here in the Philippines?

Global Climate Change and Global Warming

Climate Change refers to the abrupt change of climate over a certain period of time this
includes precipitation, temperature, and wind pattern. Climate change is caused by these factors,
burning of fossil fuels, cutting down forest and farming livestock. Due to this circumstances that
happened in the meantime, this leads to more varied and changing temperature of the planet causing
hotter temperature, more severe storms, increased drought, a warming, rising ocean, loss of species,
not enough food, more heath risk, and poverty and displacement.

Additional Readings
1. Causes and effects of climate change
Can be accessed through this link: Causes and Effects of Climate Change | United Nations
 Global warming defined as the rise of global temperature due to the increase of greenhouse
gasses. The change in temperature is evident as it can be traced date back during pre-industrial
revolution and it exacerbated now due to industrial revolution and the dynamics of economy that
contributed much to this phenomenon. Reportedly, since the start of Industrial Revolution little more
than 1 degree, or about 2 degrees Fahrenheit is the increase of temperature. In present, the temperature
is still rising and it is predicted that the global annual temperature will increase at estimated 0.18
degrees Celsius, or 0.32 degrees Fahrenheit per decade. This increase of temperature alarmed the
scientist and they have concluded that the global temperature to 1.5 degrees Celsius by 2040 to avoid
worst cases of climate disturbance like intense temperature, storms, drought, and etc. that may come
in future.

Additional Readings
1. Global Warming 101
Can be accessed through this link: Global Warming 101 - Definition, Facts, Causes and
Effects of Global Warming (nrdc.org)

Activity 3. Critical Analysis

1. Do you think that tree planting is the only to address the issue of global warming? If yes,
please expound and if no, what would be the other alternatives that would solve ease the
problem of global warming?

2. What are the existing programs here in the Philippines that aims to mitigate the effects of
global warming and climate change? And as of now, what would be its impact to the
Philippine society in general?

Unit Assessment
1. Enumerate the principle of environmental science and provide short but concise definition of
each.

2. Illutrate the ecosyem struture and discribe each element present.

3. Illustrate the layers of the atmosphere.

4. Illustrate and discuss the greenhouse effect and relate it to global climate change and global
warming.

5. Associate all the elements discussed in this unit using concept map.
Summary
Environmental science is a an inderdiscplinary field where human action towards
environment is assessed using different discipline to arrive to a more conclusive and relevant answer
thet explains the why humans do it and to provide measures to these actions. Ecosystem structure is a
multidimentional facet of environment where different factors are interacting to make the system
working and functioning. Energy flow in an ecosystem is governed by the two laws of
thermodynamics (law of conservation of energy and law of entropy) where energy can can be
converted into different forms of energy and every conversion, there is reduction due to internal
requirement of every organisms (energy consumed during metabolism). Earth’s climate and weather
are influenced by different factors (discussed in the latter concepts) that works together to make these
two works. Additionally, the Earth’s atmosphere also has significant role in temperature regulation
(greenhouse effect), radiation shielding, and maintining the planet safe against the meteors, however,
its performance is highly altered due to human activity leading to global warming and climate change.
 UNIT II
CYCLES IN ECOSYSTEM

Learning Objectives
1. State the basic rules of ecological concept
2. Demonstrate the cycles of the key biogeochemical concepts

Earth is an open and a close system. All matters can be dumped may it be organic or not to
the environment directly or indirectly, as a matter of fact, all organic and inorganic matter present in
the environment is product of deposition done by natural emission or not that makes the Earth an open
system. Apart from being an open system, earth is a close system too. Close in a way that all materials
that are dumped or inherently present in inside the earths system must move to the system through
different cycles that moves to different bodies. The significance of the openness and closeness of the
earth’s system is that it allows the matter to be converted into different form making it useful to the
other organisms and at the same time filling the deficit in the system to make the entire earth’s system
productive, self-sustaining, and thriving at the same time.

SAQ 8
1. What will happen to all biotic and abiotic factors present in the environment if there is no
movement of matter? What would be its implication to human system? Will our civilization
last? Why or why not?

Biogeochemical cycles and its Components

The biogeochemical cycles or nutrient cycles is the movement of matter within the earths’s
system like atmosphere, soil, water, and organism (Figure 5). This cycle involves different spheres in
the planet interacting with one another to perform its main role, these spheres are the following;
atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and the ecosphere. These systems are working
together to to move the matters to different systems to sustain all lives present on this planet
The movement of matter and energy in the ecosystem is primarily influenced by the Sun. As
sunlight reaches to the surface of the earth, it excites all the molecules (inorganic) on the surface of
the earth leading to movement of energy to trophic level releasing heat as a by-product of the process.
This conversion is governed by the law of conservation of mass (matter can be neither created no
destroyed). This means that the total mass of the product that is a product of reaction is the same as
the mass of reactant in vice-versa. Therefore, every matter that is present in the environment moves to
differrent system through cycle aided primarily by the water ( or through water cycle) and still the
product of every reactio is the same regardless of the type of cycle it passess through.
Biogeochemical cycle has four dististinct elements; the carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus,
sulfur,and the water cycle. Additionally, this cycle has distinct components, the reservior, residence
time,a nd fluxes or flux mechanisms. Reservoir is the place where chemicals are stored either in land,
air, and water. Residence time on the other hand pertains to length of stay of chemical in the
reservoirs before it undergoes cycle. Further, fluxed or flux mechanism pertains to the elements or
factors that influence the movement of the chemicals present in the reservoirs. But nonethless, all
these cycles is binded by the water cycle as it is vital in dissolving all organic and inorganic matter
present in the ecosystem to proceed to further cycle. However, in contemporary time, all the cycles
present has been greatly influenced by human acrivities that changes the pre-exitisting cycle into more
erratic and unpredictable.

Figure 5. Biogeochemical Cycles

Additional Readings
1. Biogeochemical Cycles
Can be accessed through this link: Biogeochemical Cycles - Oren - Major Reference Works -
Wiley Online Library
2. Biochemical cycle
Cam be accessed through this link: Biochemical cycle (unacademy.com)
3. Biogeochemical cycles: types, functions, and significance
Can be accessed through this link: Biogeochemical Cycles: Types, Functions, And
Significance - PWOnlyIAS

Geological Processes
Geologic or geological processes is an earth
process where there is a movement of plate technonics
leading to formation of certain geological formations or
relief. This process involves five distinct spheres of the
planet and these are the following: atmosphere, biosphere,
cryosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere. Geologic
proceses involves these following processes: diagenesis,
earthquakes, erosion, glaciation, hydrothermal processess,
isostacy, land subsidence, liquiefaction, metamorphism,
sediment transport, sedimentation, tectonic processes,
volcanic activity, earth tides, deformation, soil formation,
magnetic storms, and mass wasting. Figure 6. Rock Cycle
 Rock cycle is a geologic procoess that perstains to the formation and changes of rocks it
passess through time (Figure 6). This process has three distint processes; the volcanism,
sedimentation, and metamorphism. Volcanism is the first stage of rock formation where rocks are
formed due to the cooling of magma leading to the formation of an igneous rocks. Sedimentation on
the other hand produces sedimentary rocks as a result of compaction and sedimentation of debris or
sediments. Additionlly, metamorphism is a process where igneous or sedimentary rocks is altered due
to exposure of heat or pressure leading to the formation of a metaphorphic rocks. Please keep in mind
that the rock cycle does not follow a sequence since every material that is produced after volcanism
might proceed to the volcanism itself, or sedimation and/or metamorphism.

Additional Readingss
1. Geological processess
Can be accessed through this link: https://www.bgs.ac.uk/discovering-geology/geological-
processes/
2. Study of surfaxe features and processes
Can be accessed through this link: https://www.britannica.com/science/geology/Study-of-
surface-features-and-pr1. ocesses
3. External and Internal Geological Processess
Can be accessed through this link:
https://www.blinklearning.com/coursePlayer/clases2.php?idclase=19028789&idcurso=45359
9

SAQ 9
1. What are the components of biogeocheminal cycles?

2. For you, what would be the effect if the water cycle fails? What would be its cost to other
cycles?

3. What are the factors affecting geological factors? And how does these factors shape the
planet’s morphology?

Hydrologic Cycles
The hydrologic cycle or water cycle is a sequence of water movement on the Earth’s surface
and in the atmosphere (Figure 7). This process has different stages: evaporation, condensation,
precipitation, interception, infiltration, percolation, transpiration, runoff, and storage.

Evaporation is a process where

water on the surface is converted into vapor
due to exposure of heat and subsequently
proceed to the atmosphere forming clouds
once interacted to cool temperature at the
upper part of the troposphere. This
subsequent process is called condensation. At
this state, the clouds that is a product of
condensation is composed of salts and
atmospheric ions. Precipitation on the other
hand is the intermediate process where

Figure 7. Water Cycle

accumulated water in clouds will fall back onto the ground. The fraction of precipitation will appear
in streams in a form of runoff and some will form into surface runoff, subsurface runoff, or ground
water runoff. Interception on the other hand is the interruption of water droplet after precipitation
once the water will enter to the ecosystem. This process is influenced by the by land formations and
vegetation that affect the distribution of rainfall. Infiltration is the movement of water from the
boundary of atmosphere and the soil. Peculation is the penetration of water into the surface aided by
the gravity. Transpiration is a biologically mediated process where plants releases water into the
atmosphere. Runoff is the drained water produced after precipitation, percolation, and or infiltration.
These waters will proceed either to or simultaneously to tributaries, streams, rivers, or ocean.
Ultimately, storage or reservoir is the location where water is stored. The planetary water cycle has
three distinct water storage in the planet; the atmosphere, surface of the earth, and in ground.
Water cycle is significant as it plays substantially as it allows every species to avail the water
present in the environment. Further, water cycle also regulates the temperature and global weather
climate. Without this, the entire world will not be able to harness clean and cycling of nutrient as well.

Additional Readings
1. Water Cycle
Can be accessed through this link: Water cycle | National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (noaa.gov)
2. Hydrologic cycle as an ecological function
Can be accessed through this link: Hydrologic cycle as an ecological function - King County,
Washington
3. The Water Cycle: Importance of Water for Ecosystem
Can be accessed through this link: The Water Cycle: Importance of Water for Ecosystem
(watermanaustralia.com)

SAQ 10
1. What are the factors or elements involved in water cycle? Illustrate their relationship using
Venn diagram.

2. Do you think that the water that we are drinking now is the same with the water that gone
through cycle before? Why or why not?

3. What would be the implication if water would not move through bodies?
 Carbon Cycle (Figure 8)
Carbon is the fourth most abundant
element on the earth and is the backbone
of every organism that existed on this
plant. Carbon also plays substantially in
regulating global temperature by
harboring heat along with the other
greenhouse gasses and trace gasses.
Further, this element is essential element
of photosynthesis to create glucose or
simple called food. This element also is
the same with the other ecological cycles
that undergoes cycle and moves from
different bodies in order to utilize and
maximize its use to every organism.
Carbon in the earth’s system has different
sinks; the atmosphere, ocean, biological
organisms, and the soils. These are the
sinks that once exploited, these would
result to carbon emission leading to global
warming and climate change.
Figure 8. Carbon Cycle

SAQ 11
1. Given that everything that existed in the environment is interrelated, do you think that carbon
cycle is a concurrent cycle with water cycle or rock cycle?

2. Among the given reservoirs of carbon, which of these reservoirs has saturated amount of
carbon given in today’s trend? Justify your answer in one paragraph.

3. How does water cycle shape our world?

Additional Readings
1. Carbon Cycle
Can be accessed through this link: Carbon cycle - Understanding Global Change
(berkeley.edu)
2. Current understanding of the global cycling of carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous
oxide
Can be accessed through this link: Current understanding of the global cycling of carbon
dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide - PMC (nih.gov)
3. The effects of changing the carbon cycle
Can be accessed through this link: The Carbon Cycle (nasa.gov)

Nitrogen Cycle (Figure 9)

Nitrogen is the most abundant element in the atmosphere that accounts 70 percent of the
entire atmospheric component. This is one of the most crucial element since this is the major
component of protein for muscle development and the DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid). Atmospheric
nitrogen in nature is toxic and cannot be consumed directly because it is toxic in nature and needs to
be converted into different type of nitrogen that is consumable by plants and animals, dinitrogen gas
into ammonia. To achieve this, the dinitrogen gas will pass through to series of process in order
produce a more stable and consumable nitrogen and this process is called the nitrogen cycle. Nitrogen
cycle has different process and these are the following: nitrogen fixation, nitrification, anammox,
denitrification, and ammonification. The
process of nitrogen cycle involves
biological factors and events (such as
lightning and industrial fixation) to carried
out the initial process of the cycle. During
the pre-industrial era, the nitrogen cycle is
on its stable state, however, during the
present time together with the intensive
utilization of fossil fuels and cutting down
of trees, different environmental systems are saturated with nitrogen leading to ecosystem
irregularities and instability.
Figure 9. Nitrogen Cycle

Additional Readings
1. Nitrogen Cycle
Can be accessed through this link: https://byjus.com/biology/nitrogen-cycle/
2. Nitrogen in the Environment: Nitrogen Cycle
Can be accessed through this link: https://extension.missouri.edu/publications/wq252

Phosphorus Cycle (Figure 10)

Phosphorus cycle is one of the biogeochemical cycles where it moves phosphorus to different
bodies like water, soil, living and dead remains of once existed organisms. Phosphorus is an important
element of adenosine triphosphate
(ATP) that transport energy during
metabolism, the DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid), and the RNA
(Ribonucleic acid) for protein formation
of plants and animals.

To begin with, phosphorus cycle is

one the cycles in biogeochemical cycles
that pertains to the translocation and
conversion of phosphorus in different
bodies. Phosphorus cycle happened in
concurrence with different
biogeochemical cycles (hydrologic
cycle and rock cycle).
Figure 10. Phosphorous Cycle

Additional Readings
1. Phosphorus cycle
Can be accessed through this link: Phosphorus Cycle - Steps And Importance Of Phosphorus
Cycle (byjus.com)
2. Back to basics: How and Why Phosphorus Cycles through Lake
Can be accessed through this link: BACK TO BASICS: How and Why Phosphorus Cycles
through a Lake | IISD Experimental Lakes Area
3. Phosphorus cycle in focus
 Can be accessed through this link: Phosphorus cycle in focus | Nature Geoscience

Sulfur Cycle (Figure 11)

Sulfur is one of the component of the earth’s crust and living organisms. Earth’s sulfur content is
about 2 percent and only 0.07 percent is the total sulfur content of the planetary crust has. Sulfur cycle
is the transformation of organic and inorganic movement of sulfur to different bodies. This cycle
happens due to the consolidation of different elements of an ecosystem; the lithospheric cycle,
hydrologic cycle, atmospheric cycle, and the biosphere. Sulfur starts to enter the Earth’s system
during lithospheric activities where
sulfur is released to the atmosphere
and will subsequently moves into
different systems involved in
biogeochemical cycle.

Additional Readings
1. The Sulfur Cycle
Can be accessed through this link:

Figure 11. Sulfur Cycle

https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Boundless)/16%3A_Micr
obial_Ecology/16.04%3A_Nutrient_Cycles/16.4F%3A_The_Sulfur_Cycle#:~:text=The%20s
ulfur%20cycle%20describes%20the,and%20released%20when%20they%20decompose.

https://bio.libretexts.org/Courses/Gettysburg_College/01%3A_Ecology_for_All/20%3A_Biogeochem
ical_Cycles/20.07%3A_The_Sulfur_Cycle

2. Steps of Sulfur Cycle

Can be accessed through this link: https://byjus.com/biology/sulphur-cycle/

3. The Global Sulfur Cycle

Can be accessed through this link:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277701233_The_Global_Sulfur_Cycle/link/5de5fcf
d299bf10bc33a8aaf/download?_tp=eyJjb250ZXh0Ijp7InBhZ2UiOiJwdWJsaWNhdGlvbiIsIn
ByZXZpb3VzUGFnZSI6bnVsbH19

SAQ 12
1. How many percent does nitrogen constitute the mixture of air in the atmosphere?
2. Why is it that nitrogen cannot be taken or utilized directly from the atmosphere? What would
be the implication if it is consumed in its unstable state?
3. Why is it that sulfur is naturally occurring on the Earth’s surface? What event that leads to is
prevalence?
Unit Activity. Concept Building and Analysis

1. In one diagram, illustrate the cycles present in the biogeochemical cycles and discuss each
cycle.

2. What would be the implication of one of these cycle will not work? How it will affect the
human civilization?

3. Do you think that if human will intervene any of these cycle will cause a domino effect in the
entire system? Why or why not?

4. As of the moment, do you think that the entire cycles present in the biogeochemical cycles are
working efficiently? Why or why not?

Summary
Biogeochemical cycle is an imperative cycle in the Earth’s system. It is a cycle where it
moves the organic and inorganic to different bodies to serve its purpose in the ecosystem. Further, this
cycle encompasses different subcomponent; the hydrologic cycle, carbon cycle, rock cycle
(lithospheric cycle), phosphorus cycle, nitrogen cycle, and sulfur cycle. All these cycle are important
as it helps in recycling organic and inorganic nutrients from its reservoir to various systems that
needed it the most.

Midterm Requirement
1. Conduct a literature survey relative to the principles of environmental science and the recent
status of the Earth’s biogeochemical cycle.
2. After survey, synthesize all the literatures that you have gathered to arrive an output that is
scholarly in nature (introduction, body, and conclusion).
3. Note: follow the recent APA style of citation and referencing.