• Introduction: Water shed and its management, its relation to hydrologic cycle (in brief), introduction

about rain water harvesting and about the present need in Punjab.
• Surface water hydrology - Rainfall and its measurement, mean rainfall, runoff; Flow measurements;
Infiltration losses
• Methods of Irrigation: Advantages and disadvantages of irrigation, water requirements of crops, factors
affecting water requirement, consumptive use of water, water depth or delta and crop relation, Duty of
water, relation between delta, duty and base period, Soil crop relationship and soil fertility, sprinkler
Irrigation – advantages & limitations, Planning and design of sprinkler irrigation, Drip irrigation –
advantages & limitations, suitability.
• Canal Irrigation: Classifications of canals, canal alignment, Inundation canals, Bandhara irrigation,
advantages and disadvantages. Silt theories – Kennedy’s theory, Lacey’s theory, Drawbacks in

Kennedy’s &Lacey’s theories, comparison of Lacey’s and Kennedy’s theories, Design of unlined
canals based on Kennedy &Lacey’s theories, suspended and bed loads
• Lined Canals: Types of lining, selection of type of lining, economics of lining, maintenance of lined
canals, silt removal, strengthening of channel banks, measurement of discharge in channels, design of
lined canals methods of providing drainage behind lining.

• Investigation and preparation of irrigation project: Classification of projects, project preparation

investigations, design of works and drawings, concepts of multi purpose projects, Major, medium and
minor projects, planning of an irrigation project, economics & financing of irrigation works
documentation of project report, Present cutes of water changed by Irrigation Department from
cultivation.

• Tube Well Irrigation: Types of tube wells strainer type, cavity type and slotted type. Type of strainers,
aquiclude, aquifer, porosity, uniformity coefficient, specific yield & specific retention, coefficients of
permeability, transmissibility and storage. Yield or discharge of tube well, assumptions, Theim &
Dupuit’s formulas. Interference of tube wells with canal or adjoining tube wells, optimum capacity. Duty
and Delta of a tube well. Rehabilitation of tubewells.
Irrigation may be defined as
the science of artificial
application of water to the
land in accordance with the
crop requirement throughout
the crop period for full-
fledged nourishment of the
crops
•Property Rights Conflicting
Perceptions
•Food Security Flawed Economic
Instrument
•Lack of Integrated Ecosystems
The “Polavaram Dam” has become a bone of contention between Andhra Pradesh & Telangana
 • GLACIERS

• RIVERS
• GROUND WATER
WELLS
HANDPUMPS BOREWELLS
NEARLY 50% OF THE POPULATION IS DEPENDENT ON GROUNDWATER FOR WATER NEED
DEFICIENCY OF RATIONING
• DEBT CRISIS
Irrigation • Irrigation is the application of
water to soils for crop use.
application
Irrigation water is applied to
methods the fields by following different
methods
 (a)Basin irrigation.
Surface (b)Border irrigation.
irrigation (c)Furrow irrigation.
methods
 (a)Drip irrigation.
Pressurized
(b)Sprinkler irrigation.
irrigation
method
 Surface Irrigation

Flooding

Controlled Uncontrolled
Flooding Flooding

Border
Furrow Check Basin Zig Zag
Free Flooding Check
Irrigation flooding Flooding Flooding
Flooding
• Water is not checked by levees or bunds

Free
Flooding

• Free flooding is mostly provided at steep terrains.

30 cm

30-45 cm
 Check
Flooding
Basin
Flooding
• e.g. Orchids , trees etc.
• Generally used for loam soil and clayey soil
 Furrow
Irrigation

• e.g. sugarcane, maize,

cotton
• Evaporation loss is very
less
• Weed growth is less
• If total area is A, then
water provided to the
filed would be ≈1/5 to
1/2
• Length of furrow=3m
for orchids
• Length of furrow=100-
200m for fields
• Slope of the field=0.2%
to 6%
• Spacing depends on
type of crop
 CHECK
FLOODING
• Readily Available moisture for the plant=F.C.-𝑀˳
• F.C.=Field Capacity
• Φ=wilting point or wilting coefficients below which plant can’t
survive.
• 𝑀˳ =Readily available moisture content
𝐴𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ
• Frequency of irrigation-
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
• F.C.=
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
• 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎=𝛾𝑤 . 𝑑𝑤 .1
• 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎=𝛾. 𝑑. 1
𝛾𝑑
• 𝑑𝑤 = .F.C
𝛾𝑤
 𝛾𝑑
• 𝑑𝑤 = .(F.C-ϕ)
′
𝛾𝑤
𝛾𝑑
′
• 𝑑𝑤 = .(F.C-𝑀˳ )
𝛾𝑤
• F.C.=n/G
𝐴𝑣𝑔 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
• Capacity Factor=
𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙
𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑟𝑢𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
• Time Factor=
𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
𝑤𝑠
• Water application Efficiency, η𝑐 = ×100
𝑤𝑓
𝑤𝑠 =water stored in the root zone
𝑤𝑓 =water delivered to the field
 𝑤𝑢
• Water use Efficiency, η𝑢 = ×100
𝑤𝑓

𝑤𝑢 =water use consumptively

𝑤𝑓 =water delivered to the field

𝑤𝑓
• Water Conveyance Efficiency, η𝑐 = ×100
𝑤𝑟

𝑤𝑟 =water delivered from the reservoir

𝑤𝑓 =water delivered to the field

 𝑤𝑠′
• Water storage Efficiency, η𝑠 = ×100
𝑤η

• 𝑤𝑠′ =actual water stored in the root zone

• 𝑤η =water needed to store to bring the water up to the field capacity

• 𝑤η =F.C.-Available moisture
𝑦
• Water distribution Efficiency, η𝑑 = 1 − ×100
𝑑

• y=avg numerical deviation in the depth of water stored from the average
depth of irrigation stored.
• D=avg depth during irrigation
• In irrigation, the Kor period is the time period during which a crop is
watered when it's still young.
• Kor watering is usually the first watering after the plants have grown
a few centimeters high.
• The depth of water applied during Kor watering is called the Kor
depth
• The culturable command area for a distributary is 2×108 𝑚2 . The
intensity of irrigation for a crop is 40%. If kor water depth and kor
period for the crop are 14 cm and 4 weeks, respectively the peak
demand discharge is ?
• The culturable command area for a distributed channel is 20, 000
hectares. Wheat is grown in the entire area and the intensity of
irrigation is 50%. The kor period for wheat is 30 days and the kor
water depth is 120 mm. The outlet discharge for the distributary
should be ?
• An agricultural land of 437 ha is to be irrigated for a particular
crop. The base period of the crop is 90 days and the total depth of
water required by the crop is 105 cm. If a rainfall of 15cm occurs
during the base period, the duty of irrigation water is
 The moisture holding capacity of the soil in a 100 ha farm is
18cm/mThe field is to be irrigated when 50% of the available
moisture in the root zone is depleted. The irrigation water is to
be supplied by a pump working for 10 hours a day, and water
application efficiency is 75%. Details of crops planned for
cultivation are as follows:
Crop Root zone Depth (m) Peak rate of moisture use (mm/day)
X 1.0 5.0
Y 0.8 4.0
• The capacity of irrigation system required to irrigate crop
“X” in 36 ha is ?

• The area of crop “Y” that can be irrigated when the

available capacity of irrigation system is 40 litres/sec is?
 Parameter Value
P Gross Command Area I 100 hectares/cumec

Q Permanent Wilting Point II 6 degree celsius

R Duty of canal water III 1000 hectares

S Delta of wheat IV 1000 cm
V 40 cm
VI 0.12
• Irrigation water is to be provided to a crop in a field to bring
the moisture content of the soil from the existing 18% to the
field capacity of the soil at 28%. The effective root zone depth
of the crop is 70 cm.

• If the densities of the soil and water are 1.3g/cm3 and 1.0
g/cm3 respectively, the depth of irrigation water in mm
required for irrigating the crop is ?
• Crops are grown in a field having soil, which has field
capacity of 30% and permanent wilting point of 13%. The
effective depth of root zone is 80 cm. Irrigation water is
supplied when the average soil moisture drops to 20%.
Consider density of the soil as 1500 kg/m3 and density of
water as 1000kg/m3. If the daily consumptive use of water
for the crops is 2mm, the frequency of irrigating the crops
(in days) is
• A field channel has cultivable commanded area of 2000 hectares.
The intensities of irrigation for gram and wheat are 30% and 50%
respectively. Gram has a kor period of 18 days and a kor depth of 12
cm, while wheat has a kor period of 18 days and a kor depth of
15cm. The discharge (in m3/s) required in the field channel to
supply water to the commanded area during kor period is ?
• A pump with a an efficiency of 80% is used to draw groundwater
from a well for irrigating aflat field of area 108 hectares. The base
period and delta for paddy crop on this field are 120 days and 144
cm respectively . Water application efficiency in the field is 80%.
The lowest level of water in the well is 10m below the ground. The
minimum required horse power of the pump is…… Consider 1
hp=746 W; unit weight of water 9810 N/m3
• During a particular stage of the growth of a crop, the consumptive
use of water is 2.8mm/day. The amount of water available in the
soil is 50% of the maximum depth of available water in the root
zone. Consider the maximum root zone depth of the crop as
80mm and the irrigation efficiency as 70% . The interval between
irrigation (in days) will be ….
Extent of 1 km below earth
Hydrological surface to 15km
above earth
Cycle: surface
Relative Humidity
Hydrograph
/Flood
Hydrograph
• The volume of atmospheric moisture is 13000km3
and the flow rate of precipitation is 65000km3/year.
Find the residence time of moisture in days.
• A lake has water surface elevation of 103.2 m above datum.
In a month the lake receives an average inflow of 6 cumec
and in the same period the outflow from the lake was 6.5
cumec (m3/sec). In the same month, the lake receives a
rainfall of 145mm and evaporation in the lake surface was
6.1 cm. The surface area of the lake is 5000 hectares,
calculate the surface elevation of the lake at the end of this
month.
• Following observations were made for conducting a water budget
of a reservoir over a period of one month: Average surface
area=10km2, Mean surface inflow rate=10 cumec, mean surface
outflow rate=15 cumec, rainfall=10cm, fall in the reservoir
level=1.5m, Pan evaporation =20cm. Assuming the pan factor as
0.7. Estimate the average seepage discharge from the reservoir
during the month.
• The average surface area of a reservoir in the month
of June is 20km2. In the same month , the avg rate of
inflow is 10m3/s, outflow rate is 15m3/s, monthly
rainfall is 10cm, monthly seepage loss is 1.8cm and
the storage change is 16 million m3. The evaporation
in cm in that month is ?
 Favorable conditions of Precipitation
• The atmosphere must have moisture

• There must be sufficient nuclei (usually salt particle or product of

combustion) present to aid condensation over them.

• Weather condition must be favorable for condensation of water vapour

• The product of condensation must reach the earth’s surface.

PRECIPITATION
• Average Annual Rainfall

❑The amount of rain collected by a rain gauge in the last 25 hours is called DAILY
RAINFALL.

❑The amount collected in one year is called ANNUAL RAINFALL.

❑Average value of this annual rainfall for a period of 30 years is called Average
Annual Rainfall.

❑The thirty year normal rainfall is recomputed every decade due to climate and
environment changes.

❑The new all India annual rainfall normal based on 1971-2020 data is 1160.1 mm
compared to the earlier normal of 1176.9mm using the 1961-2010 data.
METEOROLOGICAL Between 25-50% Moderate Drought
DROUGHT >75% Severe Drought
HYDROLOGICAL Denotes below Lack of water in
DROUGHT average value of lakes, reservoirs and
stream flow underground water
AGRICULTURAL Deficiency of water Denoted by aridity
DROUGHT available for index
consumption of
plants
Using the Arithmetic Average Method, find
the average rainfall over a catchment . The
rain gauge data is :22.6, 18.8, 14.8, 10.4
and 16.2mm.
 Thiessen Polygon Method
• This method calculated weighted average rainfall considering the areas of
catchment represented by each rain gauge both falling outside and inside
the catchment.

• This method assumes that any point in the watershed receives the same
amount of rainfall as that measured at the nearest rain gauge station .

• Here, rainfall recorded at a gauge can be applied to any point at a distance

halfway to the next station in any direction.
 Using Thiessen Polygon Method, find average
rainfall over a catchment
RAIN A B C D E
GAUGE
STATION
Polygon 40 45 38 30 43
area
(km2)
PRECIPIT 30.8 33.4 34.6 32.6 24.6
ATION
(mm)
• Isohyets: Line joining points of equal rainfall
• Isopleths: Line joining points of equal evapotranspiration
• Isochrones: Line joining points having the equal time of travel
of runoff to the catchment outlet.
• Hyetograph: Graph representing rainfall intensity with time
over an area.
• Hydrograph: Graph showing the rate of flow (discharge)
versus time at a specific point of a river or channel.
 List-I List-II
A. Rainfall Intensity 1. Isohyets
B. Rainfall Excess 2. Cumulative Rainfall
C. Rainfall averaging 3. Hyetograph
D. Mass curve 4. Direct runoff hydrograph

Codes A B C D
a 1 3 2 4
b 3 4 1 2
c 1 2 4 3
d 3 4 2 1
An isohyet is a line joining points of
A. Equal temperature
B. Equal humidity
C. Equal rainfall depth
D. Equal evaporation
Isohyetal 70-80 80-90 90-100 100-115
range(cm
)
Area 1200 900 700 1500
(km2)
• Calculate the mean rainfall for the data given below using
Isohyetal method
• A catchment is idealized as a 25km× 25km square. It has five rain
gauges, one at each corner and one at the centre, as shown in Fig.
𝐺1
𝐺2

𝐺5

𝐺4 𝐺3

• During a month, the precipitation at these gauges is measured as

G1=300mm, G2=285 mm, G3=272 mm, G4=290 mm and G5=288mm.
The average precipitation (in mm, upto one decimal place)over the
catchment during this month by using the Theissen Polygon method is
 Rainfall Type of Deficiency
Deficiency
30-45% LARGE
45-60% SERIOUS
>60% DISASTROUS
• Determine the amount of evapotranspiration from an area if the
total rainfall precipitated during the storm is 10.0 mm. Given the
antecedent moisture at the root in the soil was 5.00 mm, the loss
of water due to seepage 2.5mm, losses due to percolation
2.0mm, surface run off 3.00 mm and the moisture retained in the
soil is 1.00mm.
A raingauge was inoperative for sometimes, during which
storm occur at three atation, A, B C surrounding area the
total precipitation recorded during the storm was 80, 60, 50
mm respectively. The normal precipitation was 830, 620
and 490 mm respectively. And at the station where rainfall
data missing the normal precipitation was 750 mm.
Estimate the missing rainfall data.
• A catchment may be idealized as a rectangle. There are three
rain gauges located inside the catchment at arbitrary
locations. The average precipitation over the catchment is
estiomated by two methods:
• Arithematic mean (𝑃𝐴 )
• 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛 (𝑃𝑇 ). 𝑃𝐴 . 𝑊ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡?
A. (𝑃𝐴 ) < 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛 𝑃𝑇
B. (𝑃𝐴 ) = 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛 𝑃𝑇
C. No relationship among them
D. (𝑃𝐴 ) > 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛 𝑃𝑇
• The annual rainfall at tstation X and the avg annual rainfall
at 18 surrounding stations during 1952 to 1970 are as
follows:
• Annual rainfall in cm at X:
• 30.5, 38.9, 43.7, 32.2,27.4, 32,49.3,
28.4,24.6,21.8,28.2,17.3,22.3,28.4,24.1,26.9,20.6,29.5 and
28.4
• 18 stations avg rainfall annual rainfall in cm:
• 22.8,35.0, 30.2, 27.4,25.2,
28.2,36.1,18.4,25.1,23.6,33.3,23.4,36.0,31.2,23.1,23.4,23.
1,33.2,26.4. Explain how the consistency of the record at
station X can be verified and how to determine the year in
which a change in regime has occurred.
 Plot the hyetograph
Cumulative 0 6 9 15
rainfall (cm)

Time(hr_) 0 3 6 9
• During a 6 hr storm, the rainfall intensity was 0.8 cm/hr on
a catchment of area 8.6 km2. The measured runoff
volume during this period was 256000 m3. The total
rainfall that was lost due to infiltration, evaporation and
transpiration (in cm/hr ) is?
• The direct runoff hydrograph of a storm obtained from a
catchment is triangular in shape and has aa abse period
of 80 hrs. The peak flow rate is 30m3/s and catchment
area is 86.4 km2. The rainfall excess that has resulted the
above hydrograph is
• The rainfall on 5 successive days in a
catchment were measured as 3,8,12,6 and 2
cm. If the total runoff at outlet from the
catchment was 15 cm, then find the value of ϕ
index.
Probable Maximum Precipitation (PMP)
• Probable maximum precipitation (PMP) is the maximum possible
precipitation that can be reasonable be expected at a given location.
• Probable maximum precipitation is defined as the greatest or extreme
rainfall for a given duration that is physically possible over a station or
basin
• PMP=𝑃ത +K𝜎
ത
• 𝑃=mean of annual rainfall series
• 𝜎=standard deviation of rainfall series
• K=frequency factor which depends upon the statistical distribution of
the series, number of years of record and return period
• In the design of hydraulic structure the study of PMP is very beneficial.
 World’s Greatest Observed Rainfall
• A list of world’s greatest rainfall is made with the available data and
plotted on log scale, the data seems to be in line and envelope of straight
line can be used for other data also

• 𝑃𝑚 = 42.16𝐷0.475

• Where,

• 𝑃𝑚 =extreme rainfall depth in cm

• D=duration in hours
RUNOFF
Direct Runoff
Base Flow
 Factors
Affecting
Run Off
Distribution
 Factors Affecting
Run-Off
Distribution

𝒘𝒊𝒅𝒕𝒉
Form Factor=
𝑨𝒙𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉
 A

𝑳𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒍𝒆
5. Slope of the catchment
• If the slope of the catchment is large, the catchment will give higher and early
peak
6. Geology
• Coarse textured soil will give a lower peak than clayey soil
7. Vegetation
• Vegetation increases infiltration and decreases the peak of runoff.
8. Drainage Density
• A catchment with higher drainage density will give a higher and early peak.
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠
• DD=
𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
9. Direction of storm movement
The runoff from catchment with rainfall direction along the stream flow will give
a higher peak.
Beginning of Water Year

• The time when precipitation exceeds average

evapotranspiration losses is called Beginning of
water year.

• For India, it is 1st June and ends on next year’s 31st

March.
 Runoff
Characteristic
of a stream
Flow Mass Curve
 HYDROGRAPH
• It is a plot of discharge
against time.
• Components of
Hydrograph:
Hydrograph generally contains
the following three parts:
• Rising Limb
• Peak (or Crest ) Segment
• Falling (or Recession ) Limb
• A-Start of rainfall
• ABEF-Base Flow
• B-Start of Direct Runoff
• BC-Rising Limb
• CPD-Crest Segment
• P-Peak of hydrograph
• C and D-Inflection Points
• DE-Recession Limb
• E-Point where overland flow
seizes
• D-Point which marks end of
direct Runoff
• BCPDE-Direct Runoff
Hydrograph
 UNIT HYDROGRAPH
• It is defined as a Direct Runoff Hydrograph, resulting due to 1 cm of effective
rain applied uniformly over the basin at a uniform intensity during a specified
period “D” hour and it is called as “D Hour Unit Hydrograph”

• It is expressed as D hr UH

• Due to a D hour rainfall of effective depth 1cm, Area of unit hydropgraph =1cm×
area of catchment

• Unit hydrograph is applicable for the area greater than 2 km2 and less than
5000km2 because rainfall is not uniformly distributed on areas greater than
5000km2
• Effective intensity in D hr UH is 1/D cm/hr

• Effective intensity in 5hr UH is 1/5 cm/hr

• Effective intensity in 6hr UH is 1/6 cm/hr

• Area of unit hydrograph=1cm× area of

catchment
 UNIT HYDROGRAPH ASSUMPTIONS
• Effective rainfall should be uniformly distributed over the catchment

• Effective rainfall intensity is constant

• Time Invariance –the direct runoff hydrograph for a given effective rainfall on
a given catchment is always the same irrespective of when it
occurs.(decrease in rate of infiltration due to antecedent rainfall is neglected)

• Linear Response-the direct runoff hydrograph of a “D” hr rainfall due to “x”

cm effective rainfall will be obtained by multiplying the D hr unit hydrograph
ordinates by x.
An isolated 4 hr storm occurred over a catchment as follows:
The ϕ-index for the catchment is 10mm/hr. The estimated runoff
depth from the catchment due to the above storm is

Time 1st hr 2nd hr 3rd hr 4th hr

Rainfall(mm) 9 28 12 7
• Ordinates of a 1hr unit hydrograph at 1 hr intervals, starting
from time t=0 are 0,2,6,4,2,1 and 0 m3/s.

• The catchment area represented by this unit hydrograph is?

• Ordinate of a 3hr unit hydrograph for the catchment at t=3 hrs

is?
FLOODS
𝑡𝑐 =time of concentration
L=maximum length of travel of water
∆𝐻
S =slope of catchment =
𝐿

∆𝐻=difference in elevation b/w most remote point of catchment

𝐶𝐷 =Dicken’s coefficient
(b/w 6-30)
𝐶𝑅 =Ryve’s coefficient (b/w
6.8-10.2)
A=Area of basin in sq. km
Q= discharge in cumecs
FLOODS
• At any point, away from the well, the drawdown is the vertical distance by which the water table
is lowered.
• The analysis of such flow was proposed by DUPIT
Thiem Equatio
This shows that head varies linearly with the logarithm of distance regardless of rate of discharge
 ∆𝒔′ =difference in modified drawdowns at the two wells selected that 𝒓𝟐 =10 𝒓𝟏

DETERMINATION OF
AQUIFER CONSTANT
“T”
CHARACTERISTIC WELL LOSSES-SPECIFIC CAPACITY OF
WELL
Slotted Type Tubewell
YIELD FROM INFILTRATION GALLERIES
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
DESIGN
 SPRINKLER IRRIGATION: DESIGN ASPECTS
• System Layout
• Operating pressure, nozzle diameter, sprinklers discharge, and wetted diameter
• Spacing between sprinklers and laterals
• Design of main line and sub-lines
• Pivot or ranger length
• System capacity for water supply
• Pump design
Sprinkler design should not vary by more than 10% between the points of highest
and lowest pressure in the system.
SPRINKLER IRRIGATION: DESIGN PRINCIPLES
• Estimate application rate beased on planned crop(s)/cropping patterns,
atmospheric water demand, and soil intake rate.
• Draw a layout
• Optimize sprinkler spacing (between sprinklers and laterals), nozzle size, and
operating pressure that provide the design application rate and distribution
pattern.
• Design sub-mains, main lines, and supply lines such that required water quantities
can be conveyed to all operating lateral lines at required pressures.
• Design pump and power units such that they are adequate to efficiently operate
the sprinkler system at design capacity and total dynamic
 Simple Sprinkler Design: Steps
1. Determine the daily maximum supply requirement for an area (A) for
the target crop as
𝐴 × 𝐸𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑉𝐴 =
𝐸𝑎
𝐸𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 =𝐾𝐶 × 𝐾𝑆 × 𝐸𝑇o
Where 𝑉𝐴 =required volume of water for the area A (𝑚3 )
A= specific area that is to be irrigated (𝑚2 )
𝐸𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 =daily maximum evapotranspiration (m)
𝐸𝑎 =design application efficiency of the sprinkler
𝐸𝑇o =reference evapotranspiration at peak water demand period
𝐾𝐶 =crop coefficient at peak water demand period
𝐾𝑆 is the soil moisture stress coefficient
 Contd…
2. Determine discharge rate (Q) for the area A based on the minimum operating
hours
𝑚3 𝑉𝐴 (𝑚3 )
𝑄𝐴 =
ℎ 𝑡 ℎ
3. Optimise sprinkler and lateral spacing for the individual sprinkler discharge rate
and application rate (which is constrained by the soil infiltration rate):
𝑞 = 𝑆𝑚 × 𝑆𝑙 × 𝐼
𝑚3
Where, q=discharge rate for the individual sprinkler ( ) for the area (𝑆𝑚 × 𝑆𝑙 ) 𝑚2
ℎ
𝑆𝑚 =sprinkler spacing along laterals (m)
𝑆𝑙 =lateral spacing along mainline (m)
I =average application rate (m/h)
𝑄
I= 𝐴, if not limited by soil intake rate
𝐴
 Contd…
• 𝑆𝑙 = 𝐷𝑚𝑙 1 − 𝐹/2
• 𝑆𝑚 = 𝐷𝑚𝑚 1 − 𝐹/2
Where 𝐷𝑚𝑙 and 𝐷𝑚𝑚 are the manufacturer’s rated wetting diameters of lateral
sprinkler and mainline sprinkler, respectively;
F is the overlapping factor, normally taken as 0.5-0.75
For windy condition, overlapping factor may be as high as 1.0
4. Number of sprinklers
𝐴
𝑛=
𝑆𝑙 × 𝑆𝑚
5. Determine system capacity 𝑛

𝑄𝑆𝑇 = ෍ 𝑄𝐴𝑖
𝑖=1
Where i is the number of sub-area like “A”
 Determine the power requirement to pump the water for a sprinkler system
as
P=𝑄𝑆𝑇 × 9.81 × 𝐻𝑇
𝐻𝑇 =𝐻𝑚 + 𝐻𝑓 + 𝐻𝑟 + 𝐻𝑠 + 𝐻𝑠𝑓
P=power (KW)
𝑄𝑆𝑇 =total discharge rate for the system (𝑚3 /𝑠)
𝐻𝑇 =total pumping head(m)
𝐻𝑚 =pressure head required to operate the sprinklers at minimum required
pressure (m)
𝐻𝑓 =total frictional head in the lines (m)
𝐻𝑟 =maximum riser height from the pump level (m)
𝐻𝑠 =suction head (vertical difference between pump level and source water
level after drawdown) (m)
𝐻𝑠𝑓 =friction head loss in suction line (m)
• A farm of 25 ha is planned to be brought under sprinkler irrigation. The textural
class of the soil is loam to silt loam, having moisture content at field capacity
(FC) and permanent wilting point (WP) of about 42 % (by volume) and 26% (by
volume) respectively. An infiltration test data showed that constant (basic)
infiltration rate is 2mm/h. A hardpan (relatively impervious layer)exists at a
depth of 2.0m below the soil surface. Long term average reference
evapotranspiration (ETo) rate in that area is 4.5 mm/day. Vegetable crops are
planned to grow on the farm, and the crop coefficient (Kc) at maxm vegetative
period is 1.1. The climate is moderately windy in a part of the season. Design
the sprinkler irrigation system (various components) for the farm. Assume the
following:
• Pressure head required to operate the sprinklers at min reqd pressure=28.05
• Total frictional head in the lines=5% of Hm
• Hr=maximum riser height from the pump level (m)=1.5 m
• Hs=suction head (vertical difference between pump level and source water
level after drawdown)(m)=0
• Hsf=friction head loss in suction line (if suction line exists)=0
 On the basis of source

based on functions
Classification
On the basis of soil conditions
of canal
On the basis of lining

On the basis of alignment

DESIGN OF REGIME CHANNEL
• Basically two methods are used for design of Regime channel
1. Kennedy’s theory (1895)
2. Lacey’s Theory (1939)
KENNEDY THEORY
•Kennedy introduced the term critical
velocity (𝑉° ) which will keep channel free
from silting and scouring.
Design Steps of Kennedy Theory
Design Steps of Kennedy Theory
Design Steps of Kennedy Theory
Design Steps of Kennedy Theory
Design Steps of Kennedy Theory
Design Steps of Kennedy Theory
DRAWBACK’S OF
KENNEDY’S THEORY
LACEY’S
THEORY
• Lacey carried out extensive investigation on the design of
stable channel in alluvium.
• He found many drawbacks in Kennedy’s theory.
• He elaborated regime concept and found that even if a
channel is showing no silting and no scouring, it may not
be in regime actually.
• He therefore differentiated between three regime
conditions.
• True Regime
• Initial Regime
• Final Regime
TRUE REGIME
CONDITION
INITIAL REGIME
CONDITION
FINAL REGIME
CONDITION
DESIGN STEPS
FOR LACEY’S
THEORY
Design a regime channel for
a discharge of 50 cumec
and silt factor 1.1, using
Lacey’s theory.
Using Lacey’s theory
design an irrigation
channel carrying 30
m3/sec. Take silt factor
as 1.0.
•Design a lined canal to carry
100m3/s on a slope of 1 in 2500.
The maximum permissible
velocity is 2m/s, n=0.013 in
Manning’s formula and the side
slope =1.25 H:1.0 V.
DRAWBACKS OF
LACEY’S THEORY
 Comparison of Kennedy’s and Lacey’s
theory
KENNEDY’S THEORY LACEY’S THEORY
Trapezoidal Channel Semi elliptical Channel
Silt is kept in suspension due to eddies Silt is kept in suspension due to eddies
generated from bottom generated both from side slope & the
bottom i.e., throughout the perimeter
Recommended Kutter’s equation for Gave his own velocity equation
finding velocity
No equation for bed slope Gave equation to calculate bed slope
Trial & error procedure Direct procedure
Applicable for alluvial channel Applicable for alluvial channel as well as
for rivers
 RIVERS & RIVER TRAINING
• Perennial Rivers: Perennial rivers obtain their water from melting snow
for the large part of any year besides getting rain water during therain
season. Being snow-fed, perennial rivers carry significant flow all
through the year.
• Non-perennial Rivers: Non-perennial rivers are not snow-fed rivers
and , hence, get completely dried up or carry insignificant flow during
the summer season. They get their supplies only during the monsoon
as a result of rains in the catchment areas.
• Flashy Rivers: In case of flashy rivers, the river stage rises and falls in a
very short period of a day or two due to the steep flood hydrograph. A
small flow may, however, continue for some time.
• Virgin Rivers: In arid regions, waters of some rivers may get completely
lost due to evaporation and percolation. Such rivers become
completely dry much before they join another river or sea, and are
called virgin rivers.
 Rivers can be classified as follows:
1. Based on variation of discharge in river
A. Perennial rivers
B. Non-perennial rivers
C. Flashy rivers
D. Virgin rivers
2. Based on stability of river
Stable rivers
Aggrading rivers
Degrading rivers
3. Based on the location of reach of river, as
Mountainous rivers
Rivers in flood plain
Delta rivers
Tidal rivers
• Based on the plan-form of river, as
• Straight rivers
• Meandering rivers
• Braided rivers
 Stable rivers
• When the alignment of a river channel, river slope, and river
regime are relatively stable and show little variationfrom
year to year except that the river may migrate within its
permanent banks (i.e., khadirs) the river is said to be stable.
However, changes in bed and plan-forms of a stable river
do take place, but these are small.
AGGRADING RIVERS
• When the sediment load entering a river reach is greater than the
sediment load leaving a river reach, the river in that reach
becomes and aggrading river due to deposition of excess
sediment. This situation may arise due to obstructions (e.g.,
barrage or dam) across a river, extension of delta at the river
mouth, or sudden intrusion of sediment from a tributary. The flow
of river channel gets divided into a number of braided channels.
DEGRADING RIVERS
• When the sediment load entering a river reach is less than that
leaving the river reach, the river in that reach becomes a degrading
river due to erosion of the bed and bank material
Mountainous Rivers
• Rivers in mountainous reaches are further divided into incised
rivers and boulder rivers. Incised rivers have a steep bed slope and
high velocity of flow. The bed and the banks of these rivers are
made up of rocks and very large boulders which are usually highly
resistant to erosion.
• The sediment transported by an incised river is often different
from that of the river bed comes from the catchment due to soil
erosion.
• The bed and the sides of a boulder river consist of a mixture of
boulder, gravel, shingle and sand. The bed slope and the velocity
of flow are smaller than those of incised river. The river cross-
section is usually well-defined. There is , however, considerable
subsoil flow due to high permeability of the bed material.
RIVERS IN FLOOD PLAIN
• After the boulder stage, a river enters the alluvial plains.
• The bed and banks are now made up of sand and silt.
• The bed slope and the velocity of flow in the river are much
smaller than those of the boulder rivers.
• The cross-section of the river is decided by the sediment load and
the erodibility of the same type as the material forming the
channel bed.
• During high floods, these rivers inundate very large areas and
cause considerable damage to life, property, and crops. Such
rivers are also called alluvial rivers.
TIDAL RIVERS
• All rivers ultimately meet the sea. In the reach of a river just
upstream of the sea, there would occur periodic changes in water
levels due to tides.
• This reach of the river is called tidal river and receives sea water
during flood tides and raises its level.
• During ebb tides, the river water level is lowered.
• The length of the river reach affected by tidal effect depends on
the river slope, the tidal range, discharge, river configuration etc.
 DELTA RIVERS
• A river, before becoming a tidal river, may split into number of branches due to very flat
bed slopes resulting in shoal formation and braiding of the channel.
• This part of the river reach is called delta river.
• The delta river indicates a stage, rather than type of river.
STRAIGHT RIVERS
Alluvial rivers seldom run straight due to sediments
MEANDERING RIVERS
• Flow in alluvial rivers is asymmetrical, there is a tendency for such rivers to vary their
plan forms into bends which eventually result in a meandering pattern.
• In plan, such rivers comprise a series of bends of alternate curvature.
• The successive curves are connected through straight reaches of the river called
“crossing”.
• Meandering increases the length of river and decreases its slope.
BRAIDED RIVER • When a river flows in two or more channels around alluvial islands,
it is called a braided river.

• The braided patterns in a river develop after local deposition of

coarser material which cannot be transported under prevailing
conditions of flow and which subsequently grows into an island
consisting of coarse as well as fine material.
 RIVER TRAINING
River training aims at achieving one or more of the following objectives:
• FLOOD PROTECTION
• Construction of embankments or leeves to confine water to a narrower channel
• Increasing discharge capacity of natural channels by widening or deepening
• Provision of escapes or diversion from the main channel into auxiliary channel for excess water in
main channel
• Construction of reservoir
NAVIGATION (also known as “training for depth” or “low water training”)
• To make a river navigable, depth is increased by dredging or using spurs to contract river channel
to increase depth
• Sharp curves are eliminated to make ships move easily.
SEDIMENT CONTROL
• This is done to make efficient movement of sediment load for keeping the channel in a state of
equilibrium
Contd…
GUIDING THE FLOW
• Hydraulic structures such as Canal Headworks, Bridges need to be protected
against outflanking and direct attack of flow, so these structure guide the
flow such as in case of bridge, these ensure that water flows between
abutment of the bridges.
CANAL TYPES: on the basis of Nature of source of
water supply
• PERMANENT CANAL: It has continuous source of water supply.
And are also called perennial canals.
• INUNDATION CANALS: draws its supplies from a river only during
the high stages of the river.
• Such canals do not have any headworks for diversion of river
water to the canal, but are provided with a Canal Head regulator.
FIELD CHANNELS
•If the major part or the entire ponding of water is
achieved by a raised crest ad a smaller part or nil
part of it is achieved by the shutters, then this
barrier is known as a WEIR.
•On the other hand , if most of the ponding is done
by gates and a smaller or nil part of it is done by
the raised crest, then the barrier is known as
BARRAGE.
LOCATION OF
CANAL
HEADWORKS
COMPONENTS OF
DIVERSION
HEADWORKS
WEIR
VERTICAL DROP WEIR
ROCK FILL WEIR
CONCRETE WEIR
IRRIGATION
WELLS
Assume that world’s recoverable groundwater
is 4 x 106 𝑘𝑚 .
3 For how long will this water be
able to meet the needs of the worlds
population of say 5 billion, if per capita daily
consumption is taken to be 4000L
TYPES OF GEOLOGIC
FORMATIONS
TUBULAR or FRACTURE SPRINGS
AQUIFER
PROPERTIES
TRANSMISSIVITY (T)
 SPECIFIC
RETENTION
SPECIFIC YIELD
APPARENT SPECIFIC
YIELD
SPECIFIC
STORAGE
STORAGE
COEFFICIENT/STO
RATIVITY
A confined aquifer of 40 m thickness
has a porosity of 0.3. Determine the
specific storage and storage
coefficient. If 𝛼 = 1.5 × 10−9
𝑐𝑚 2
/dyne and 𝛽 = 5 × 10−10
𝑐𝑚 /dyne
2
STEADY STATE FLOW TO
WELLS IN CONFINED
AQUIFER
ESTIMATION OF K & T
OF THE CONFINED
AQUIFER
A 10 cm diameter well penetrates a 10 m thick
confined aquifer. The steady state drawdown were
found to be 2.5 and 0.05 m at distance of 10m and 40
m , respectively from the centre of the well. When the
well was operated with a constant discharge rate of
125 l/min for 12 h. Using the Dupuit-Thiem equation,
calculate the transmissibility and hydraulic
conductivity.
Theim Equation
WELL LOSS
DESIGN OF
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION