Human eye

The human eye is a sensory organ in the visual system

that reacts to visible light allowing eyesight. Other Human eye
functions include maintaining the circadian rhythm,
and keeping balance.

The eye can be considered as a living optical device. It

is approximately spherical in shape, with its outer
layers, such as the outermost, white part of the eye (the
sclera) and one of its inner layers (the pigmented
choroid) keeping the eye essentially light tight except The eye of the right side of the face, showing
on the eye's optic axis. In order, along the optic axis, its visible components - a white sclera, a light
the optical components consist of a first lens (the brown iris, and the black pupil, in its orbit
cornea—the clear part of the eye) that accounts for surrounded by the lids and lashes
most of the optical power of the eye and accomplishes
most of the focusing of light from the outside world;
then an aperture (the pupil) in a diaphragm (the iris—
the coloured part of the eye) that controls the amount
of light entering the interior of the eye; then another
lens (the crystalline lens) that accomplishes the
remaining focusing of light into images; and finally a
light-sensitive part of the eye (the retina), where the
images fall and are processed. The retina makes a
connection to the brain via the optic nerve. The
remaining components of the eye keep it in its required
shape, nourish and maintain it, and protect it. 1. vitreous body 2. ora serrata 3. ciliary muscle
4. ciliary zonules 5. Schlemm's canal 6. pupil
Three types of cells in the retina convert light energy
7. anterior chamber 8. cornea 9. iris 10. lens
into electrical energy used by the nervous system: rods
cortex 11. lens nucleus 12. ciliary process 13.
respond to low intensity light and contribute to
conjunctiva 14. inferior oblique muscle 15.
perception of low-resolution, black-and-white images;
inferior rectus muscle 16. medial rectus muscle
cones respond to high intensity light and contribute to
17. retinal arteries and veins 18. optic disc 19.
perception of high-resolution, coloured images; and the
dura mater 20. central retinal artery 21. central
recently discovered photosensitive ganglion cells
retinal vein 22. optic nerve 23. vorticose vein
respond to a full range of light intensities and
24. bulbar sheath 25. macula 26. fovea 27.
contribute to adjusting the amount of light reaching the
sclera 28. choroid 29. superior rectus muscle
retina, to regulating and suppressing the hormone
30. retina
melatonin, and to entraining circadian rhythm.[1]
Details
System Visual system
Structure Identifiers
Latin oculus
Humans have two eyes, situated on the left and the MeSH D005123 (https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/
right of the face. The eyes sit in bony cavities called record/ui?ui=D005123)
the orbits, in the skull. There are six extraocular TA98 A01.1.00.007 (https://ifaa.unifr.ch/Pu
muscles that control eye movements. The front visible blic/EntryPage/TA98%20Tree/Entit
part of the eye is made up of the whitish sclera, a y%20TA98%20EN/01.1.00.007%20E
coloured iris, and the pupil. A thin layer called the ntity%20TA98%20EN.htm)
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ntity%20TA98%20EN.htm)
a fused two-piece unit, composed of an anterior (front)
segment and the posterior (back) segment. The anterior TA2 113 (https://ta2viewer.openanatomy.o
rg/?id=113), 6734 (https://ta2viewer.o
segment is made up of the cornea, iris and lens. The
penanatomy.org/?id=6734)
cornea is transparent and more curved and is linked to
the larger posterior segment, composed of the vitreous, FMA 54448 (https://bioportal.bioontology.o
retina, choroid and the outer white shell called the rg/ontologies/FMA/?p=classes&conc
sclera. The cornea is typically about 11.5 mm (0.45 in) eptid=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fpurl.org%2Fs
in diameter, and 0.5 mm (500 μm) in thickness near its ig%2Font%2Ffma%2Ffma54448)
centre. The posterior chamber constitutes the Anatomical terminology
remaining five-sixths; its diameter is typically about
24 mm (0.94 in). An area termed the limbus connects the
cornea and sclera. The iris is the pigmented circular structure
concentrically surrounding the centre of the eye, the pupil,
which appears to be black. The size of the pupil, which
controls the amount of light entering the eye, is adjusted by
the iris' dilator and sphincter muscles.
Arizona Eye Model. "A" is accommodation
Light energy enters the eye through the cornea, through the in diopters.

pupil and then through the lens. The lens shape is changed
for near focus (accommodation) and is controlled by the
ciliary muscle. Between the two lenses (the cornea and the
crystalline lens), there are four optical surfaces which each
refract light as it travels along the optical path. One basic
model describing the geometry of the optical system is the
Arizona Eye Model.[2] This model describes the
accommodation of the eye geometrically. Photons of light
falling on the light-sensitive cells of the retina A detailed medical illustration of the eye
(photoreceptor cones and rods) are converted into electrical
signals that are transmitted to the brain by the optic nerve
and interpreted as sight and vision.

Size
The size of the eye differs among adults by only one or 2 millimetres. The eyeball is generally less tall
than it is wide. The sagittal vertical (height) of a human adult eye is approximately 23.7 mm (0.93 in), the
transverse horizontal diameter (width) is 24.2 mm (0.95 in) and the axial anteroposterior size (depth)
averages 22.0–24.8 mm (0.87–0.98 in) with no significant difference between sexes and age groups.[3]
Strong correlation has been found between the transverse diameter and the
width of the orbit (r = 0.88).[3] The typical adult eye has an anterior to
posterior diameter of 24 mm (0.94 in), and a volume of 6 cubic
centimetres (0.37 cu in).[4]

The eyeball grows rapidly, increasing from about 16–17 mm (0.63–

0.67 in) diameter at birth to 22.5–23 mm (0.89–0.91 in) by three years of
age. By age 12, the eye attains its full size.

Components
The eye is made up of three coats, or layers, enclosing various anatomical
structures. The outermost layer, known as the fibrous tunic, is composed
of the cornea and sclera, which provide shape to the eye and support the MRI scan of the human eye

deeper structures. The middle layer, known as the vascular

tunic or uvea, consists of the choroid, ciliary body, pigmented
epithelium and iris. The innermost is the retina, which gets its
oxygenation from the blood vessels of the choroid
(posteriorly) as well as the retinal vessels (anteriorly).

The spaces of the eye are filled with the aqueous humour
anteriorly, between the cornea and lens, and the vitreous
body, a jelly-like substance, behind the lens, filling the entire
posterior cavity. The aqueous humour is a clear watery fluid
that is contained in two areas: the anterior chamber between
the cornea and the iris, and the posterior chamber between the
iris and the lens. The lens is suspended to the ciliary body by
the suspensory ligament (zonule of Zinn), made up of
hundreds of fine transparent fibers which transmit muscular Schematic diagram of the human eye. It
shows a horizontal section through the
forces to change the shape of the lens for accommodation
right eye.
(focusing). The vitreous body is a clear substance composed
of water and proteins, which give it a jelly-like and sticky
composition.[5]

Extraocular muscles
Each eye has seven extraocular muscles located in its orbit.[6] Six of
these muscles control the eye movements, the seventh controls the
movement of the upper eyelid. The six muscles are four recti
muscles – the lateral rectus, the medial rectus, the inferior rectus,
and the superior rectus, and two oblique muscles the inferior
oblique, and the superior oblique. The seventh muscle is the levator
palpebrae superioris muscle. When the muscles exert different
The outer parts of the eye
tensions, a torque is exerted on the globe that causes it to turn, in
almost pure rotation, with only about one millimeter of
translation.[7] Thus, the eye can be considered as undergoing rotations about a single point in the centre of
the eye.
 Eye and orbit Image showing orbita Image showing orbita Normal anatomy of
anatomy with motor with eye and nerves with eye and the human eye and
nerves visible (periocular fat periocular fat orbit, anterior view
removed)

Vision

Field of view
The approximate field of view of an individual human eye
(measured from the fixation point, i.e., the point at which one's
gaze is directed) varies by facial anatomy, but is typically 30°
superior (up, limited by the brow), 45° nasal (limited by the nose),
70° inferior (down), and 100° temporal (towards the
temple).[8][9][10] For both eyes, combined (binocular vision) visual
field is approximately 100° vertical and a maximum 190°
horizontal, approximately 120° of which makes up the binocular
field of view (seen by both eyes) flanked by two uniocular fields Side-view of the human eye, viewed
approximately 90° temporal,
(seen by only one eye) of approximately 40 degrees.[11][12] It is an
illustrating how the iris and pupil
area of 4.17 steradians or 13700 square degrees for binocular appear rotated towards the viewer
vision.[13] When viewed at large angles from the side, the iris and due to the optical properties of the
pupil may still be visible by the viewer, indicating the person has cornea and the aqueous humour
peripheral vision possible at that angle.[14][15][16]

About 15° temporal and 1.5° below the horizontal is the blind spot created by the optic nerve nasally,
which is roughly 7.5° high and 5.5° wide.[17]

Dynamic range
The retina has a static contrast ratio of around 100:1 (about 6.5 f-stops). As soon as the eye moves rapidly
to acquire a target (saccades), it re-adjusts its exposure by adjusting the iris, which adjusts the size of the
pupil. Initial dark adaptation takes place in approximately four seconds of profound, uninterrupted
darkness; full adaptation through adjustments in retinal rod photoreceptors is 80% complete in thirty
minutes. The process is nonlinear and multifaceted, so an interruption by light exposure requires
restarting the dark adaptation process over again.
The human eye can detect a luminance from 10−6
cd/m2, or one millionth (0.000001) of a candela per
square meter to 108 cd/m2 or one hundred million
(100,000,000) candelas per square meter.[18][19][20]
(that is it has a range of 1014, or one hundred trillion
100,000,000,000,000, about 46.5 f-stops). This range The pupil of the human eye can range in size
does not include looking at the midday sun (109 from 2 mm to over 8 mm to adapt to the
cd/m2)[21] or lightning discharge. environment

At the low end of the range is the absolute threshold

of vision for a steady light across a wide field of view, about 10−6 cd/m2 (0.000001 candela per square
meter).[22][23] The upper end of the range is given in terms of normal visual performance as 108 cd/m2
(100,000,000 or one hundred million candelas per square meter).[24]

The eye includes a lens similar to lenses found in optical

instruments such as cameras and the same physics principles can
be applied. The pupil of the human eye is its aperture; the iris is
the diaphragm that serves as the aperture stop. Refraction in the
cornea causes the effective aperture (the entrance pupil) to differ
slightly from the physical pupil diameter. The entrance pupil is
typically about 4 mm in diameter, although it can range from
Dilation and constriction of the pupil
2 mm (f/8.3) in a brightly lit place to 8 mm (f/2.1) in the dark. The
latter value decreases slowly with age; older people's eyes
sometimes dilate to not more than 5–6mm in the dark, and may be as small as 1mm in the light.[25][26]

Movement
The visual system in the human brain is too slow to process
information if images are slipping across the retina at more than a
few degrees per second.[27] Thus, to be able to see while moving,
the brain must compensate for the motion of the head by turning
the eyes. Frontal-eyed animals have a small area of the retina with
very high visual acuity, the fovea centralis. It covers about 2
degrees of visual angle in people. To get a clear view of the world,
the brain must turn the eyes so that the image of the object of
regard falls on the fovea. Any failure to make eye movements
correctly can lead to serious visual degradation.

Having two eyes allows the brain to determine the depth and The light circle is the optic disc
distance of an object, called stereovision, and gives the sense of where the optic nerve exits the
three-dimensionality to the vision. Both eyes must point retina
accurately enough that the object of regard falls on corresponding
points of the two retinas to stimulate stereovision; otherwise,
double vision might occur. Some persons with congenitally crossed eyes tend to ignore one eye's vision,
thus do not suffer double vision, and do not have stereovision. The movements of the eye are controlled
by six muscles attached to each eye, and allow the eye to elevate, depress, converge, diverge and roll.
These muscles are both controlled voluntarily and involuntarily to track objects and correct for
simultaneous head movements.

Rapid
Rapid eye movement, REM, typically refers to the sleep stage during which the most vivid dreams occur.
During this stage, the eyes move rapidly.

Saccadian
Saccades are quick, simultaneous movements of both eyes in the same direction controlled by the frontal
lobe of the brain.

Fixational
Even when looking intently at a single spot, the eyes drift around. This ensures that individual
photosensitive cells are continually stimulated in different degrees. Without changing input, these cells
would otherwise stop generating output.

Eye movements include drift, ocular tremor, and microsaccades. Some irregular drifts, movements
smaller than a saccade and larger than a microsaccade, subtend up to one tenth of a degree. Researchers
vary in their definition of microsaccades by amplitude. Martin Rolfs[28] states that 'the majority of
microsaccades observed in a variety of tasks have amplitudes smaller than 30 min-arc'. However, others
state that the "current consensus has largely consolidated around a definition of microsaccades that
includes magnitudes up to 1°."[29]

Vestibulo-ocular
The vestibulo-ocular reflex is a reflex eye movement that stabilizes images on the retina during head
movement by producing an eye movement in the direction opposite to head movement in response to
neural input from the vestibular system of the inner ear, thus maintaining the image in the centre of the
visual field. For example, when the head moves to the right, the eyes move to the left. This applies for
head movements up and down, left and right, and tilt to the right and left, all of which give input to the
ocular muscles to maintain visual stability.

Smooth pursuit
Eyes can also follow a moving object around. This tracking is less accurate than the vestibulo-ocular
reflex, as it requires the brain to process incoming visual information and supply feedback. Following an
object moving at constant speed is relatively easy, though the eyes will often make saccades to keep up.
The smooth pursuit movement can move the eye at up to 100°/s in adult humans.

It is more difficult to visually estimate speed in low light conditions or while moving, unless there is
another point of reference for determining speed.

Optokinetic
The optokinetic reflex (or optokinetic nystagmus) stabilizes the image on the retina through visual
feedback. It is induced when the entire visual scene drifts across the retina, eliciting eye rotation in the
same direction and at a velocity that minimizes the motion of the image on the retina. When the gaze
direction deviates too far from the forward heading, a compensatory saccade is induced to reset the gaze
to the centre of the visual field.[30]

For example, when looking out of the window at a moving train, the eyes can focus on a moving train for
a short moment (by stabilizing it on the retina), until the train moves out of the field of vision. At this
point, the eye is moved back to the point where it first saw the train (through a saccade).

Near response
The adjustment to close-range vision involves three processes to focus an image on the retina.

Vergence movement
When a creature with binocular vision looks at an object, the eyes
must rotate around a vertical axis so that the projection of the
image is in the centre of the retina in both eyes. To look at a
nearby object, the eyes rotate 'towards each other' (convergence),
while for an object farther away they rotate 'away from each other'
(divergence).

Pupil constriction
Lenses cannot refract light rays at their edges as well as closer to
the centre. The image produced by any lens is therefore somewhat
blurry around the edges (spherical aberration). It can be minimized
by screening out peripheral light rays and looking only at the The two eyes converge to point to
better-focused centre. In the eye, the pupil serves this purpose by the same object.
constricting while the eye is focused on nearby objects. Small
apertures also give an increase in depth of field, allowing a
broader range of "in focus" vision. In this way the pupil has a dual purpose for near vision: to reduce
spherical aberration and increase depth of field.[31]

Lens accommodation
Changing the curvature of the lens is carried out by the ciliary muscles surrounding the lens; this process
is known as "accommodation". Accommodation narrows the inner diameter of the ciliary body, which
actually relaxes the fibers of the suspensory ligament attached to the periphery of the lens, and also
allows the lens to relax into a more convex, or globular, shape. A more convex lens refracts light more
strongly and focuses divergent light rays from near objects onto the retina, allowing closer objects to be
brought into better focus.[31][32]

Medicine
The human eye contains enough complexity to warrant specialized attention and care beyond the duties
of a general practitioner. These specialists, or eye care professionals, serve different functions in different
countries. Eye care professionals can have overlap in their patient care privileges. For example, both an
ophthalmologist (M.D.) and optometrist (O.D.) are professionals who diagnose eye disease and can
prescribe lenses to correct vision. Typically, only ophthalmologists are licensed to perform surgical
procedures. Ophthalmologists may also specialize within a surgical area, such as cornea, cataracts, laser,
retina, or oculoplastics.

Eye care professionals include:

Ocularists
Ophthalmologists
Optometrists
Opticians
Orthoptists and vision therapists

Pigmentation

Brown
Almost all mammals have brown or darkly-pigmented irises.[33] In
humans, brown is by far the most common eye color, with approximately
79% of people in the world having it.[34] Brown eyes result from a
relatively high concentration of melanin in the stroma of the iris, which
causes light of both shorter and longer wavelengths to be absorbed.[35]
A brown iris
In many parts of the world, it is nearly the only iris color present.[36]
Brown eyes are common in Europe, East Asia, Southeast Asia,
Central Asia, South Asia, West Asia, Oceania, Africa and the
Americas.[37] Light or medium-pigmented brown eyes can also be
commonly found in Europe, among the Americas, and parts of
Central Asia, West Asia and South Asia. Light brown eyes bordering
amber and hazel coloration are common in Europe, but can also be
observed in East Asia and Southeast Asia, though are uncommon in A light brown iris with limbal ring
the region.

Amber
Amber eyes are a solid color with a strong yellowish/golden and
russet/coppery tint, which may be due to the yellow pigment
called lipochrome (also found in green eyes).[38][39] Amber eyes
should not be confused with hazel eyes. Although hazel eyes may
contain specks of amber or gold, they usually tend to have many
other colors, including green, brown and orange. Also, hazel eyes
may appear to shift in color and consist of flecks and ripples,
while amber eyes are of a solid gold hue. Even though amber is
similar to gold, some people have russet or copper colored amber
eyes that are mistaken for hazel, though hazel tends to be duller Amber eye
and contains green with red/gold flecks, as mentioned above.
Amber eyes may also contain amounts of very light gold-ish gray.
People with that eye color are common in northern Europe, and in fewer numbers in southern Europe, the
Middle East, North Africa, and South America.[40]

Hazel
Hazel eyes are due to a combination of Rayleigh scattering and a
moderate amount of melanin in the iris' anterior border layer.[41] Hazel
eyes often appear to shift in color from a brown to a green. Although hazel
mostly consists of brown and green, the dominant color in the eye can
either be brown/gold or green. This is why hazel eyes can be mistaken as
amber and vice versa.[42][43][44][45][46][47][48] The combination can
Hazel eye
sometimes produce a multicolored iris, i.e., an eye that is light
brown/amber near the pupil and charcoal or dark green on the outer part of
the iris (or vice versa) when observed in sunlight.

Definitions of the eye color hazel vary: it is sometimes considered to be synonymous with light brown or
gold, as in the color of a hazelnut shell.[42][44][47][49]

Around 18% of the US population and 5% of the world population have hazel eyes. Hazel eyes are found
in Europe, most commonly in the Netherlands and the United Kingdom,[50] and have also been observed
to be very common among the Low Saxon speaking populations of northern Germany.[51]

Green
Green eyes are most common in Northern, Western and Central Europe.[52][53] Around 8–10% of men
and 18–21% of women in Iceland and 6% of men and 17% of women in the Netherlands have green
eyes.[54] Among European Americans, green eyes are most common among those of recent Celtic and
Germanic ancestry, with about 16%.[54]

The green color is caused by the combination of: 1) an amber or light brown pigmentation in the stroma
of the iris (which has a low or moderate concentration of melanin) with: 2) a blue shade created by the
Rayleigh scattering of reflected light.[35] Green eyes contain the yellowish pigment lipochrome.[55]
 Green eyes Green-hazel eyes

Blue
The inheritance pattern followed by blue eyes was previously
assumed to be a mendelian recessive trait, however, eye color
inheritance is now recognized as a polygenic trait, meaning that it
is controlled by the interactions of several genes.[56]

Blue eyes are predominant in northern and eastern Europe,

particularly around the Baltic Sea. Blue eyes are also found in
southern Europe, Central Asia, South Asia, North Africa and West
Asia.[57][58]

Approximately 8% to 10% of the global population have blue Blue eye

eyes.[34] A 2002 study found that the prevalence of blue eye color
among the white population in the United States to be 33.8% for
those born from 1936 through 1951.

Gray
Like blue eyes, gray eyes have a dark epithelium at the back of the
iris and a relatively clear stroma at the front. One possible
explanation for the difference in the appearance of gray and blue
eyes is that gray eyes have larger deposits of collagen in the
stroma, so that the light that is reflected from the epithelium
undergoes Mie scattering (which is not strongly frequency-
dependent) rather than Rayleigh scattering (in which shorter
wavelengths of light are scattered more). This would be analogous Gray eye Northern Italy
to the change in the color of the sky, from the blue given by the
Rayleigh scattering of sunlight by small gas molecules when the
sky is clear, to the gray caused by Mie scattering of large water droplets when the sky is cloudy.[59]
Alternatively, it has been suggested that gray and blue eyes might differ in the concentration of melanin at
the front of the stroma.[59]
Gray eyes can also be found among the Algerian Shawia people[60] of the Aurès Mountains in Northwest
Africa, in the Middle East/West Asia, Central Asia, and South Asia. Under magnification, gray eyes
exhibit small amounts of yellow and brown color in the iris.

Irritation
Eye irritation has been defined as "the magnitude of any stinging,
scratching, burning, or other irritating sensation from the eye".[61]
It is a common problem experienced by people of all ages. Related
eye symptoms and signs of irritation are discomfort, dryness,
excess tearing, itchiness, grating, foreign body sensation, ocular
fatigue, pain, soreness, redness, swollen eyelids, and tiredness, etc.
These eye symptoms are reported with intensities from mild to
severe. It has been suggested that these eye symptoms are related
to different causal mechanisms, and symptoms are related to the Conjunctival infection, or redness of
particular ocular anatomy involved.[62] the sclera surrounding the iris and
pupil
Several suspected causal factors in our environment have been
studied so far.[61] One hypothesis is that indoor air pollution may
cause eye and airway irritation.[63][64] Eye irritation depends somewhat on destabilization of the outer-
eye tear film, i.e. the formation of dry spots on the cornea, resulting in ocular discomfort.[63][65][66]
Occupational factors are also likely to influence the perception of eye irritation. Some of these are
lighting (glare and poor contrast), gaze position, reduced blink rate, limited number of breaks from visual
tasking, and a constant combination of accommodation, musculoskeletal burden, and impairment of the
visual nervous system.[67][68] Another factor that may be related is work stress.[69][70] In addition,
psychological factors have been found in multivariate analyses to be associated with an increase in eye
irritation among VDU users.[71][72] Other risk factors, such as chemical toxins/irritants (e.g. amines,
formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, acrolein, N-Decane, VOCs, ozone, pesticides and preservatives, allergens,
etc.) might cause eye irritation as well.

Certain volatile organic compounds that are both chemically reactive and airway irritants may cause eye
irritation. Personal factors (e.g. use of contact lenses, eye make-up, and certain medications) may also
affect destabilization of the tear film and possibly result in more eye symptoms.[62] Nevertheless, if
airborne particles alone should destabilize the tear film and cause eye irritation, their content of surface-
active compounds must be high.[62] An integrated physiological risk model with blink frequency,
destabilization, and break-up of the eye tear film as inseparable phenomena may explain eye irritation
among office workers in terms of occupational, climate, and eye-related physiological risk factors.[62]

There are two major measures of eye irritation. One is blink frequency, which can be observed by human
behavior. The other measures are break up time, tear flow, hyperemia (redness, swelling), tear fluid
cytology, and epithelial damage (vital stains) etc., which are human beings' physiological reactions. Blink
frequency is defined as the number of blinks per minute and it is associated with eye irritation. Blink
frequencies are individual with mean frequencies of < 2–3 to 20–30 blinks/minute, and they depend on
environmental factors including the use of contact lenses. Dehydration, mental activities, work
conditions, room temperature, relative humidity, and illumination all influence blink frequency. Break-up
time (BUT) is another major measure of eye irritation and tear film stability.[73] It is defined as the time
interval (in seconds) between blinking and rupture. BUT is considered to reflect the stability of the tear
film as well. In normal persons, the break-up time exceeds the interval between blinks, and, therefore, the
tear film is maintained.[62] Studies have shown that blink frequency is correlated negatively with break-
up time. This phenomenon indicates that perceived eye irritation is associated with an increase in blink
frequency since the cornea and conjunctiva both have sensitive nerve endings that belong to the first
trigeminal branch.[74][75] Other evaluating methods, such as hyperemia, cytology etc. have increasingly
been used to assess eye irritation.

There are other factors that are related to eye irritation as well. Three major factors that influence the
most are indoor air pollution, contact lenses and gender differences. Field studies have found that the
prevalence of objective eye signs is often significantly altered among office workers in comparisons with
random samples of the general population.[76][77][78][79] These research results might indicate that indoor
air pollution has played an important role in causing eye irritation. There are more and more people
wearing contact lens now and dry eyes appear to be the most common complaint among contact lens
wearers.[80][81][82] Although both contact lens wearers and spectacle wearers experience similar eye
irritation symptoms, dryness, redness, and grittiness have been reported far more frequently among
contact lens wearers and with greater severity than among spectacle wearers.[82] Studies have shown that
incidence of dry eyes increases with age,[83][84] especially among women.[85] Tear film stability (e.g. tear
break-up time) is significantly lower among women than among men. In addition, women have a higher
blink frequency while reading.[86] Several factors may contribute to gender differences. One is the use of
eye make-up. Another reason could be that the women in the reported studies have done more VDU work
than the men, including lower grade work. A third often-quoted explanation is related to the age-
dependent decrease of tear secretion, particularly among women after 40 years of age.[85][87][88]

In a study conducted by UCLA, the frequency of reported symptoms in industrial buildings was
investigated.[89] The study's results were that eye irritation was the most frequent symptom in industrial
building spaces, at 81%. Modern office work with use of office equipment has raised concerns about
possible adverse health effects.[90] Since the 1970s, reports have linked mucosal, skin, and general
symptoms to work with self-copying paper. Emission of various particulate and volatile substances has
been suggested as specific causes. These symptoms have been related to sick building syndrome (SBS),
which involves symptoms such as irritation to the eyes, skin, and upper airways, headache and fatigue.[91]

Many of the symptoms described in SBS and multiple chemical sensitivity (MCS) resemble the
symptoms known to be elicited by airborne irritant chemicals.[92] A repeated measurement design was
employed in the study of acute symptoms of eye and respiratory tract irritation resulting from
occupational exposure to sodium borate dusts.[93] The symptom assessment of the 79 exposed and 27
unexposed subjects comprised interviews before the shift began and then at regular hourly intervals for
the next six hours of the shift, four days in a row.[93] Exposures were monitored concurrently with a
personal real time aerosol monitor. Two different exposure profiles, a daily average and short term (15
minute) average, were used in the analysis. Exposure-response relations were evaluated by linking
incidence rates for each symptom with categories of exposure.[93]

Acute incidence rates for nasal, eye, and throat irritation, and coughing and breathlessness were found to
be associated with increased exposure levels of both exposure indices. Steeper exposure-response slopes
were seen when short term exposure concentrations were used. Results from multivariate logistic
regression analysis suggest that current smokers tended to be less sensitive to the exposure to airborne
sodium borate dust.[93]
Several actions can be taken to prevent eye irritation—

trying to maintain normal blinking by avoiding room temperatures that are too high; avoiding
relative humidities that are too high or too low, because they reduce blink frequency or may
increase water evaporation.[62]
trying to maintain an intact film of tears by the following actions:

1. Blinking and short breaks may be beneficial for VDU users.[94][95] Increasing these two
actions might help maintain the tear film.
2. Downward gazing is recommended to reduce ocular surface area and water
evaporation.[96][97][98]
3. The distance between the VDU and keyboard should be kept as short as possible to
minimize evaporation from the ocular surface area by a low direction of the gaze,[99]
and
4. Blink training can be beneficial.[100]

In addition, other measures are proper lid hygiene, avoidance of eye rubbing,[101] and proper use of
personal products and medication. Eye make-up should be used with care.[102]

Disease
There are many diseases, disorders, and age-related changes that may affect the eyes and surrounding
structures.

As the eye ages, certain changes occur that can be attributed solely to the aging process. Most of these
anatomic and physiologic processes follow a gradual decline. With aging, the quality of vision worsens
due to reasons independent of diseases of the aging eye. While there are many changes of significance in
the non-diseased eye, the most functionally important changes seem to be a reduction in pupil size and
the loss of accommodation or focusing capability (presbyopia). The area of the pupil governs the amount
of light that can reach the retina. The extent to which the pupil dilates decreases with age, leading to a
substantial decrease in light received at the retina. In comparison to younger people, it is as though older
persons are constantly wearing medium-density sunglasses. Therefore, for any detailed visually guided
tasks on which performance varies with illumination, older persons require extra lighting. Certain ocular
diseases can come from sexually transmitted infections such as herpes and genital warts. If contact
between the eye and area of infection occurs, the STI can be transmitted to the eye.[103]

With aging, a prominent white ring develops in the periphery of the cornea called arcus senilis. Aging
causes laxity, downward shift of eyelid tissues and atrophy of the orbital fat. These changes contribute to
the etiology of several eyelid disorders such as ectropion, entropion, dermatochalasis, and ptosis. The
vitreous gel undergoes liquefaction (posterior vitreous detachment or PVD) and its opacities — visible as
floaters — gradually increase in number.

Eye care professionals, including ophthalmologists and optometrists, are involved in the treatment and
management of ocular and vision disorders. A Snellen chart is one type of eye chart used to measure
visual acuity. At the conclusion of a complete eye examination, the eye doctor might provide the patient
with an eyeglass prescription for corrective
lenses. Some disorders of the eyes for which
corrective lenses are prescribed include
myopia (near-sightedness), hyperopia (far-
sightedness), astigmatism, and presbyopia
(the loss of focusing range during aging).

Macular degeneration
Macular degeneration is especially prevalent
in the U.S. and affects roughly 1.75 million
Americans each year.[104] Having lower
levels of lutein and zeaxanthin within the
macula may be associated with an increase
in the risk of age-related macular
degeneration.[105] Lutein and zeaxanthin act
as antioxidants that protect the retina and
macula from oxidative damage from high-
energy light waves.[106] As the light waves
enter the eye, they excite electrons that can
Diagram of a human eye (horizontal section of the right eye)
cause harm to the cells in the eye, but they
1. Lens, 2. Zonule of Zinn or Ciliary zonule, 3. Posterior chamber and 4.
can cause oxidative damage that may lead to Anterior chamber with 5. Aqueous humour flow; 6. Pupil, 7. Corneosclera
macular degeneration or cataracts. Lutein or Fibrous tunic with 8. Cornea, 9. Trabecular meshwork and Schlemm's
and zeaxanthin bind to the electron free canal. 10. Corneal limbus and 11. Sclera; 12. Conjunctiva, 13. Uvea with
radical and are reduced rendering the 14. Iris, 15. Ciliary body (with a: pars plicata and b: pars plana) and 16.

electron safe. There are many ways to ensure Choroid); 17. Ora serrata, 18. Vitreous humor with 19. Hyaloid canal/(old

a diet rich in lutein and zeaxanthin, the best artery), 20. Retina with 21. Macula or macula lutea, 22. Fovea and 23.
Optic disc → blind spot; 24. Visual axis (line of sight). 25. Optical axis. 26.
of which is to eat dark green vegetables
Optic nerve with 27. Dural sheath, 28. Tenon's capsule or bulbar sheath,
including kale, spinach, broccoli and turnip 29. Tendon.
greens. Nutrition is an important aspect of 30. Anterior segment, 31. Posterior segment.
the ability to achieve and maintain proper 32. Ophthalmic artery, 33. Artery and central retinal vein → 36. Blood
eye health. Lutein and zeaxanthin are two vessels of the retina; Ciliary arteries (34. Short posterior ones, 35. Long
major carotenoids, found in the macula of posterior ones and 37. Anterior ones), 38. Lacrimal artery, 39. Ophthalmic

the eye, that are being researched to identify vein, 40. Vorticose vein.
41. Ethmoid bone, 42. Medial rectus muscle, 43. Lateral rectus muscle, 44.
their role in the pathogenesis of eye
Sphenoid bone.
disorders such as age-related macular
degeneration and cataracts.[107]

Sexuality
Human eyes (particularly the iris and its color) and the area surrounding the eye (lids, lashes, brows) have
long been a key component of physical attractiveness. Eye contact plays a significant role in human
nonverbal communication. A prominent limbal ring (dark ring around the iris of the eye) is considered
attractive.[108] Additionally, long and full eyelashes are coveted as a sign of beauty and are considered an
attractive facial feature.[109] Pupil size has also been shown to play an influential role in attraction and
nonverbal communication, with dilated (larger) pupils perceived to be more attractive.[110] It should also
be noted that dilated pupils are a response to sexual arousal and stimuli.[111] In the Renaissance, women
used the juice of the berries of the belladonna plant in eyedrops to dilate the pupils and make the eyes
appear more seductive.
 Long, thick, and dark eyelashes are A thick, dark, limbal ring is seen as an
considered an attractive facial feature as attractive feature
they draw attention to the eyes. Subject
exhibits trichomegaly (exceptionally long
lashes)

Pupils dilate in response to sexual

arousal and larger pupils are perceived to
be more attractive

Images

Right eye without The structures of the

labels (horizontal eye labeled
section)
Another view of the
eye and the
structures of the eye
labeled

See also

Anatomy portal

Eye colour
Eye development
Eye disease
Eye strain
Hyaloid canal
Iris recognition
Knobloch syndrome
Lacrimal caruncle
Rheum
Spectral sensitivity

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External links
Eye – Hilzbook (https://web.archive.org/web/20150523224359/http://hilzbook.com/organs/h
ead/eye/)
Retina – Hilzbook (https://web.archive.org/web/20150524023842/http://hilzbook.com/organ
s/head/eye/retina/)
Interactive Tool to explore the Human Eye (https://www.visiondirect.co.uk/the-human-eye)
Media related to Human eyes at Wikimedia Commons
Quotations related to eyes at Wikiquote

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