EMG 311/EEE 316 COURSEWARE

COURSE TITLE: APPLIED MATHEMATICS FOR ELECTRICAL

ENGINEER I
Developed by: Dr. Lanre Olatomiwa (Dept. of Electrical/Electronics Engr’g)

1. Laplace Transform
Introduction
Laplace transform is a method of solving deferential equation (DE) and initial value problems.
It is particularly useful in problems where the mechanical or electrical driving forces has
discontinuity, impulsive or a periodic function. Laplace transform of a function ( ) is denoted
by:

( ) = ℒf(t) = ( ) = ( )

The integral exists if the boundary has finite value. Thus, if the operation ℒ transforms f(t),
which is in the time domain into ( ) which is in the complex frequency domain or simply
the s-domain, where s is the complex variable +
Example 1
Using this definition, find the Laplace transform of (a) a unit step function 1 (b) exponential
decay function

(a) Unit step function (1), i.e f(t) =1

1
ℒ(1) = 1 = [ ]
−
1 1
= [0 − 1] =
−

Note: =0 =1
(b) Exponential decay function , i.e ( )=

ℒ = =

( ) [ ]
= =
−( + )
= [ 0 − 1] =
−( + ) ( + )
Example 2

Find the Laplace transform of f(t) = (2 + 6)

Solution

ℒ(2t + 6) = 2 + 6

Using integration by parts

∫ = −∫

Letting = and = −
1
Therefore, = and =∫ − = −
−

Substituting:

1 1 6
ℒ (2t + 6) = 2 | + + |
− −
1 1 6
= 2 0+ | − [ 0 − 1]
−
1 6
= 2 0 − [ 0 − 1] +
2 6
= +
Table of Standard LaPlace transform
( ) ℒf(t) = ( )

1
−
1
+

+
ℎ
−
ℎ
−
!

( )
!( − )
2. Inverse Laplace Transform
Given a transform function ( ), we call an input function f(t) the inverse Laplace transform
of ℒf(t) = ( ) . Assuming all input functions are continuous we can write ℒ F(s) for the
inverse Laplace transform of F. That is, ℒ F(s) is the unique continuous function f(t) that
has ( ) as its Laplace transform. Symbolically;
ℒ F(s) = ( )
Therefore, giving a transform, we can obtain the corresponding expression in t, provided we
can recognise it form the table of transform.
Basic inverse Laplace transform formulas

For example,

(a) ℒ = 4, (b) ℒ = , (c) ℒ = 5 , (d) ℒ =4 ℎ3

But, in the case we have ℒ , we can see that this cannot be found in the standard
LaPlace table. It is therefore needful for one to factorize the denominator and use the law of
partial fraction to solve the equation.

So, we can write as sum of two simpler fractions ( )

+( )
which make it easy to
find its inverse transform form the table of formula as +2 .
The ability to represent a complicated algebraic fraction in terms of its partial fraction is
therefore very important.
Rule of partial Fractions
1) The numerator must be of lower degree than denominator
2) Factorize the denominator into its prime factors. These will determine the shapes of
the partial fraction
3) A linear factor ( + ) gives a partial fraction( ) where A is a constant to be
determine
4) A repeated factor ( + 1) gives ( )
+( )

5) Similarly, ( + 1) gives ( )
+( )
+( )

6) A quadratic factor ( + + ) gives ( )

7) Repeated quadratic factor ( + + ) gives ( )

+( )

Example 1

Giving that F(s) = find its inverse transform

Solution:
By partial fraction
− − 10
F(s) = = +
− − 2 ( + 1) ( − 2)
Multiplying through by factorized denominator
− − 10 = ( − 2) + ( + 1)
− − 10 = −2 + + )
=( + ) −2 +
Comparing the coefficient of each component of the equation
For ⃗ → −1 = + ------------------------------(1)

For ⃗ → −10 = −2 + ----------------------------(2)

Solve eqn (1) and (2) simultaneously :
9 = 3 , therefore, =3
and = −( + 1) = −4
By substituting A and B in the partial fraction;
− − 10 3 4
F(s) = = −
− − 2 ( + 1) ( − 2)
Therefore, from the Laplace transform standard table;
− − 10
ℒ ( )=ℒ = −
− −2
Example 2

Giving that F(s) = find its inverse transform

Solution
By partial fraction;

= = ( )
+( )

Multiplying through by factorized denominator

− 4 = ( − 2) + ( + 2)
= −2 + +2
= ( + ) − 2( − )
Comparing the coefficient of each component of the equation
For ⃗ → 1= + ------------------------------(1)

For ⃗ → −4 = −2 + 2 ----------------------------(2)
Solve eqn (1) and (2) simultaneously :
From eqn (1), =1− ,
by substituting in eqn (2), we have −4 = −2(1 − ) + 2
−4 = −2 + 2 + 2 = −2 = 4

Therefore, = −2 4 = − −1 2 = −0.5

Also, =1− = 1 − (−0.5) = 1.5

By substituting A and B in the partial fraction;
−4 1.5 (−0.5)
= +
−2 ( + 2) ( − 2)
Therefore, from the Laplace transform standard table;
−4
ℒ ( )=ℒ = . − .
−4
3. Solution of Differential Equation by Laplace Transform
The general expression of Laplace transforms of derivatives of order is given bey:

( )
ℒ =ℒ ( )
= ℒf(t) − (0) − (0) … . . (0)
Where, (0), (0) and (0) are the initial given condition
For example,
If n=0 (i.e ODE).

ℒ ( ) = (0)
If n=1 (i.e derivative of order 1).

ℒ ( ) = ℒf(t) − (0) or ( ) − (0)

if n =2 (i.e derivative of order 2).

ℒ ( ) = ℒf(t) − (0) − (0) or F(s) − (0) − (0)

Procedure for solving Laplace transform of derivative

(a) Re-write the equation in terms of Laplace transform
(b) Insert the given initial condition
(c) Rearrange the equation algebraically to give the transform of the solution
(d) Express the transform in standard form of partial fraction
(e) Determine the inverse transform to obtain the particular solution.
Example 1
The initial value problem given below by Laplace transform.

+2 + = −
given that (0) = −1, (0) = 1
Solution
Transform the DE into s-domain

1
Y− (0) − (0) + 2( − (0)) + =
+1
Expanding

1
Y− (0) − (0) + 2 − 2 (0) + =
+1
Factorizing

1
( + 2 + 1) − ( + 2) (0) − (0) =
+1
Substituting the given initial values

1
( + 2 + 1) + + 2 − 1 =
+1
By further factoring

1
( + 1) + ( + 1) =
( + 1)
Multiplying through by the denominator

( + 1)( + 1) + ( + 1)( + 1) = 1
( + 1) + ( + 1) = 1
Rearranging to make Y the subject

1 ( + 1)
= −
( + 1) ( + 1)
1 1
= − ℎ
( + 1) ( + 1)
Find the inverse of the partial fraction

1 1
ℒ (Y) = ℒ −ℒ
( + 1) ( + 1)

= −

= −1

Note/Hint:
−1
From the standard Laplace transform table: = −1 !

Therefore, if n=3, =( )!
=
( )
Example 2

Solve the equation −3 +2 =2 given that at = 0, =5 =7

Solution
Writing the equation in its transform

−3 +2 =2 3
given that (0) = 5, (0) = 7
2
X− (0) − (0) − 3( − (0)) + 2 =
−3
Substituting the given initial values

2
( − 5 − 7) − 3( − 5) + 2 =
−3
Factorizing or rearranging to obtain X

( − 3 + 2) − 5 − 7 + 15 =
2 5 8
( − 3 + 2) = + −
−3 1 1
2 + 5 ( − 3) − 8( − 3)
=
( − 3)
5 − 23 + 26 5 − 23 + 26
= =
( − 3 + 2)( − 3) ( − 1)( − 2)( − 3)
Therefore,

5 − 23 + 26
=
( − 1)( − 2)( − 3)
Expressing in standard form of partial fraction

5 − 23 + 26
= = + +
( − 1)( − 2)( − 3) ( − 1) ( − 2) ( − 3)
Multiplying through by the denominator

5 − 23 + 26
= ( − 2)( − 3) + ( − 1)( − 3)
+ ( − 1)( − 2)
 = ( − 5 + 6) + ( − 4 + 3) + ( − 3 + 2)
=( + + ) − (5 + 4 + 3 ) + 6 + 3 + 2
Equating the coefficient of each component;

For ⃗ → 5= + + ------------------------------(1)
For ⃗ → −23 = −(5 + 4 + 3 ) -------------------------(2)

For ⃗ → 26 = 6 + 3 + 2 ----------------------------(3)
Substituting by elimination
From eqn (1), = 5− −
Substituting for A in eqn (2) and (3), we have
+ 2 = 3 --------------------------------------------(4)
3 + 4 = 4-------------------------------------------(5)
Solve eqn (4) and (5) simultaneously, we have
=0 =1
Substituting to obtain B and C in eqn (1) A, therefore =4
By substituting A, B and C in the partial fraction;

5 − 23 + 26 4 0 1
= = + +
( − 2)( − 3) ( − 1) ( − 2 ) ( − 3)
Therefore, from the Laplace transform standard table determine the inverse transform;

ℒ ( )=ℒ [ X] = 4 +
Therefore,

( )= 4 +
Application of Laplace Transform
1. Control theory applications
Laplace transforms are widely used in classical control theory. The independent variable is
often taken as time t. In many applications the transformed differential equation will turn
out to be the ratio of two polynomials in s, for example:

The transfer function of a linear system is defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform of the
output of the system to the Laplace transform of the input to the system. It is denoted by G(s)
or H(s).
For transfer functions, the initial conditions are assumed to be zero so that:

Note:
In control system, the differential equations are transformed into the Laplace domain simply
by replacing by and by etc .

The resulting transfer function can then be written:

Where and are polynomial of in ′ ′

Note:
The properties of G are determined by the roots of Q(s) = 0 (which is known as the
characteristic equation). These roots are referred to as poles of the system.

2. Example of Laplace Transform in Control Systems

(a) Spring System
 ( )
fs(t) = Kx, therefore Fs(s) = KX(s). The transfer function ( ) = =
( )

(b) Damper System

Hydraulic Damper
The equation of the damper;

Assuming x(0) = 0, the Laplace transform gives; Fd(s)= Cs X(s)

Hence,

(c) Mass-Spring-Damper System

( )= + +
For zero initial conditions

( )= ( )+ ( )+ ( )
Therefore the transfer function is :

( ) 1
( )= =
( ) + +
Often the differential equation is written as:

+2 + = ( )
Where,

( ) is the force term (input signal)

is the system natural frequency=

is known as the damping factor.

Therefore, the transfer function is written as:

( )=
+2 +

Calculating transient response to a step input

The output of a system is often denoted by c(t) and its Laplace transform by C(s) with the input
being u(t) and U(s) respectively.

( )
( )=
( )
Therefore,

( )
( )= ( ) ( )=
+2 +
For a step input, the Laplace transform is .
Therefore,

( )=
( +2 + )
1
= + +
− −
Where, and are constants; and are the root of characteristic equation
obtained by partial fraction.
Hence, taking inverse transforms,

( )=1+ +
Where,

=− − and =− +
( ) ( )

=− + ( − 1) and =− − ( − 1)
The nature of the response depends on the nature of the roots, which is determined by the
damping factor .

The figure below shows the waveform of step response for a second order system for >
1, = 1 and < 1
 2. Application of Laplace Transform to RLC Circuits
In this section, we consider RLC series circuits. These are simple electrical circuits with a
resistor, capacitor, and inductor connected to a power source in series. The diagram below
gives the basic components which we discuss below.

Current I(t) is the rate at which charged particles flow through a conductor. Thus, if q(t)
represents the charge at a cross section in the circuit at time t, then current, is given by
( )= ( )
Writing a KVL for the circuit above, we have
( )= ( )+ ( )+ ( )
( )
= ( ) + ∫ ( ) +

= ( ) + ( )+ ( )

Substituting for ( ) and ( ), since ( ) = ( ), therefore, ( )= ( )

Therefore,
1
( )= ( ) + ( )+ ( )

Rearranging;
1
( )+ ( )+ ( )= ( )

The resulting equation gives 2nd order Differential Equation that is required to solve using
method of Laplace transform.
The table below gives the relationship between Mass-spring system and RLC circuit.
Example 1.
A resistor, capacitor, and inductor, are connected in series with a voltage supply of 14 V as
illustrated below. (i) Find the charge on the capacitor at time t if the initial charge and initial
current are 0. (ii) In the long term, what will be the charge on the capacitor and the current in
the circuit.

Solution
Using KVL
1
( )+ ( )+ ( )= ( )

Substitute for R, L, c and E(t)

( ) + 9 ( ) + 14 ( ) = 14
With the given initial condition, (0) = 0 and (0) = ( )=0
Using Laplace transform
(a) Re-write the equation in terms of Laplace transform ( S-domain )
14
( − ( )− ( )) + 9( − (0)) + 14 =
Note that
ℒ ( ) = (0)
ℒ ( ) = ( ) − (0)
ℒ ( ) = F(s) − (0) − (0)
 (b) Insert the given initial conditions
14
+9 + 14 =
14
( + 9 + 14) =
Therefore,
14
=
( + 9 + 14)
(c) Rearrange the equation algebraically to give the transform of the solution
14
=
( + 2)( + 7)
(d) Express the transform in standard form of partial fraction
14
= = + +
( + 2)( + 7) ( + 2) ( + 7)

Therefore,
14 = ( + 2)( + 7) + ( + 7) + ( + 2)
= ( + 9 + 14) + +7 + +2
= ( + + ) + (9 + 7 + 2 ) + 14
Equating the coefficient
⃗ → ( + + )=0 -----------------------------(1)
⃗ → (9 + 7 + 2 ) = 0 ----------------------------(2)
⃗ → 14 = 14
Therefore, = 14 14 = 1
Substituting A in eqn(1).
= −(1 + )

Substituting A and B in eqn (2).

We obtain = 2 5, therefore, = −7 5
Substituting A, B and C in the partial fraction
1 7 1 2 1
= + − +
5 ( + 2) 5 ( + 7)

(e) Determine the inverse transform to obtain the particular solution.

( )= − +

(ii) At long term (i.e → ∞)

7 1 2 1
( )=1− × + × =1
→
5 5

This implied that the charge on the capacitor will be 1 coulomb at → ∞

While the current in the circuit,
( )= ( )
Differentiating, we have:

( ) = −(−2) + (−7)

14 14
= −
5 5
14
= { − }
5

Therefore,
(0) = ( )= 0
→

This implied, that there will be no current flowing in the circuit as → ∞

EXERCISE
Find the current and charge in each RLC series circuit from the data given below.

1). = 10Ω, =5 , = 0.25 , =6 , ( ) = 0, (0) = 0

2). = 5Ω, = 0.25 , = 0.1 , =0 , ( ) = 0.01 , (0) = 0

2). = 11Ω, = 1 30 , =1 , = 10 , ( ) = 1 , (0) = 2