Toderive the resultant

amplitude (R) due to n

secondary waves of amplitude (a)
that reach at point P on the
screen.
If the resultant amplitude (R) is
known then we can find the
intensity at point P [Intensity α
(resultant amplitude)2].

To find the resultant amplitude (R) due to all the amplitudes (a) reaching at point P on the screen,
we construct a polygon of each arm a (amplitude). AB is the resultant amplitude (R).

From fig. AB =2 x AD and AD = r Sin nδ/2

Therefore, AB = 2r Sin nδ/2 …... [1]

Again from fig. nδ = na/r (since angle=arc/radius and total arc length = na)

Or r = na/ nδ …... [2]

[2] into [1] –

nδ
2 𝑛𝑎 sin
𝐴𝐵 = 2
nδ

𝐧𝛅
𝐧𝐚 𝐬𝐢𝐧
Or 𝐀𝐁 = 𝟐
𝐧𝛅
𝟐
𝐧𝛅
let 𝐧𝐚 = 𝐀 & 𝜶 =
𝟐

𝑨 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜶
𝑹=
𝜶

Above is the expression of Resultant Amplitude (R) which is used directly to derive the article.
Q.1 Derive the intensity and position of central maxima, minima, and secondary maximum
in FRAUNHOFER DIFFRACTION at Single Slit:

From Fig. nδ is the total phase difference between Y0 and Yn wave and the corresponding path
difference ∆ =BC= e sin θ. Then from relation φ = 2π/λ. ∆
𝟐𝛑
𝐧𝛅 = 𝐞 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛉
𝛌
nδ π
= e sinθ
2 λ
nδ
let α =
2

𝛑
𝜶= 𝐞 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛉
𝛌

As we know that resultant amplitude (R) due to all the amplitudes (a) reaching at point P on the screen
is given by:
 nδ
𝑛𝑎 sin
(𝑅 = 2 Let na = A (a significant no. which represents an amplitude)and α = nδ , 𝐴𝑙𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑑)
nδ 2
2

𝑨 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜶
𝑹=
𝜶

Therefore, the intensity at point P is proportional to square of amplitude (R) i.e.,

𝐀𝟐 (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛂)𝟐
𝐈 = 𝐑𝟐 =
𝛂𝟐

Now the explanation of intensity curve:

Central Maxima:

When α tends to zero then R becomes maximum.

sin 𝛼 sin 𝛼
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐴 lim [ ] [𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 lim [ ] = 1]
𝛼 →0 𝛼 𝛼 →0 𝛼

𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐴

Or Intensity at central maximum I = 𝑹𝟐𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑨𝟐

Minima:

R becomes minimum when sin α tends to zero but α should not tend to zero.

𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 → sin 𝛼 = 0 or 𝛼 = ±𝑛𝜋

𝛼 = ± 𝜋, ±2 𝜋, ±3 𝜋, ± 4𝜋, … … . ± 𝑛𝜋

π
Since 𝛼 = e sinθ
λ

π
Therefore e sinθ = ± 𝑛𝜋
λ

𝐞 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛉 = ± 𝒏𝛌

This is the expression to find the position of minima.

Secondary Maxima:

sin α 2
Since I = R2 = A2 [ ]
α

dI
Therefore = 0 will define each point
dα

on this curve.
dI d( R2 ) d sin α 2
→ = A2 [ ] =0
dα dα dα α

sin α d sin α
A2 2 [ ]=0
α dα α

sin α α cosα − sin α

A2 2 [ ]=0
α α2

Here A2 ≠ 0

𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 [sin α/ α], α = 0 is already used to defined the central maxima

[sin α] = 0 is already used to defined the minima.

α cosα − sin α
Therfore [ ] = 0 will define the positon of secondary maxima.
α2

α cosα − sin α
Thus [ ]=0
α2

α cosα − sin α = 0

𝜶 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜶

Here the value of α which satisfies the above relation, gives the values of position of secondary maxima. To find the position of
secondary maxima we use a graphical method of simultaneous equations. For this we draw y = α and y= tan α simultaneously
and find their intersecting points except intersecting point at α = 0 (because α = 0 corresponds to the position of central
maximum) other intersecting points gives the position of secondary maxima.

As we find that other intersecting points of y = α and y= tan α are at

α = ±3π/2, ±5π/2, ±7π/2 ….. ± (2n+1) π/2 except α = 0.

(Position of secondary maxima is shown in above Figure)

Q.2 Derive the intensity and position of central maxima, minima and secondary maxima.

N-slits (Transmission Grating): From Figure. δ is the total phase difference between Y0 and Y1 wave and
the corresponding path difference ∆ =BC= (e+d) sin θ. Then from relation φ = (2π/λ) ∆. Therefore,

𝟐𝛑
𝛅= (𝐞 + 𝐝) 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛉
𝛌

𝛅 𝛑
Or = (𝐞 + 𝐝) 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛉
𝟐 𝛌

Let δ/2= β
𝛑
𝛃= (𝐞 + 𝐝) 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛉 …… [1]
𝛌

As we know the resultant amplitude reaching at P is given as

nδ
na sin
R= 2
nδ
2

Comparing it with above N-slits figure, we find that

Amplitude (a) = R, n(hypothetical secondary sources) =N (N physical sources) and δ/2= β. Therefore, the
resultant amplitude (R’) due to N slits at Point P is
 𝐑 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐍𝛃
𝐑′ =
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛃

Principle maximum: For R’ to be maximum, sinβ→0. When β=0 then we get an indeterminate form.
Therefore, we apply L-Hospital rule

d
(sin Nβ)
dβ
R′max = R lim [ ]
β →nπ d
(sin β)
dβ

Ncos Nβ
R′max = R lim [ ]
β →nπ cos β

R′max = RN Or I(principle maximum) = (R′max )2 = R2 N2

𝛑
Since β= ±nπ and 𝛃 = (𝐞 + 𝐝) 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛉
𝛌

π
(e + d)sinθ = ±nπ
λ

(𝐞 + 𝐝)𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛉 = ±𝐧𝛌

This is expression to find the principal maxima.

Minima: For R’ to be minimum, sinNβ→0

or sinNβ = 0

or Nβ = ±mπ

π
N (e + d)sinθ = ±mπ
λ

𝐍(𝐞 + 𝐝)𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛉 = ±𝐦𝛌

Here, if we put m=nN or m=0, N, 2N, 3N…….nN then above expression reduces to the expression of maxima.
Therefore, to define minima m ≠ nN then it can have values between two consecutive principal maxima. Say zero
order and first principal maxima (0-N) then are 1,2,3,…….N-1minima.

Secondary Maxima:

sinN β 2
since I = R′2 = R 2 [ ]
sinβ

dI
Therefore = 0 will define each point on this curve.
dβ

dI d( R′2 ) d sinN β 2
→ = R2 [ ] =0
dβ dβ dβ sinβ

sin Nβ d sinN β
R2 2 [ ]=0
sinβ dβ sinβ

sin Nβ NcosNβsinβ − cos β sinN β

R2 2 [ ]=0
sinβ sinβ2
Here R2 ≠ 0

sin Nβ
In above [ ] , sin β = 0 is already used to defined the principal maxima
sinβ

sin Nβ = 0 is already used to defined the minima.

NcosNβ− cos β sinN β

Therefore, the term in bracket [ ] = 0 will describe the secondary maxima.
sinβ2

NcosNβ− cos β sinN β

i.e., [ ]=0
sinβ2

or NcosNβsinβ − cos β sinN β = 0

or NcosNβsinβ = cos β sinN β

𝐍𝐭𝐚𝐧𝛃 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝐍𝛃

Above expression provides the condition for secondary maxima

Therefore, for the requirement of sin2 Nβ in expression of Intensity of secondary maxima the sin2 Nβ is obtained from
expression Ntanβ = tan Nβ …..by drawing a right triangle of angle Nβ.

(Ntanβ)2 N2 tanβ2
Therefore, from Figure…. sin2 N β = 2 →
(√Ntanβ+1) N2 tanβ2 +1

sin2 Nβ N tanβ 2 2 √(Ntanβ)2 + 1

or the term = 2 +1
sin2 β 2
(N tanβ + 1) sin2 β Ntanβ

sin2 Nβ N2 tanβ2
=
sin2 β 1
tanβ2 (N2 + ) sin2 β
tanβ2 1

sin2 Nβ N2 N2 N2 N2
= → → →
sin2 β 2 sin2 β (N2 sin2 β + cos2 β) 2
[N sin2 β + 1 − sin2 β]
2
[1 + sin2 β (N − 1)]
(N sin2 β + 2)
tanβ
2
R 2 sin2 Nβ R 2N 𝐈𝟎(𝐏𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐜𝐢𝐩𝐚𝐥 𝐦𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦
𝐈𝐒𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐚𝐫𝐲 𝐦𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦 = R′2 = 2
→ 2
→ 2
sin β [1 + sin β (N − 1)] [1 + sin2 β (N − 1)]
2

𝐈𝟎(𝐏𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐜𝐢𝐩𝐚𝐥 𝐦𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦)
𝐈𝐒𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐚𝐫𝐲 𝐦𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦 =
[1 + sin2 β (N 2 − 1)]

It means, if N (no. of lines on a grating) increases the intensity of secondary maxima decreases. Practically, say a grating of
20,000 lpi has less blur region between two successive maxima (between two successive colored spectral lines) than a 15,000
lpi grating.
Q. Define the Rayleigh criterion of Resolution and its Application.

Or

Find intensity at mid in Rayleigh criterion of Resolution (i.e., for just resolved condition).

Rayleigh criterion of Resolution:

This criterion is applicable for the evaluation of resolving powers of telescope, microscope, grating and
prism etc.

According to Raleigh, the two point sources or equally intense spectral lines [say sodium light D1
(λ)=5890 A0 and D2(λ + dλ) =5896 A0] are just resolved by an optical instrument, i.e. when the central
maximum of diffraction pattern due to one source (λ), falls exactly on the first minimum of diffraction
pattern of the other (λ+d λ) and vice versa.

The Intensity at the Dip (mid) (for just resolved condition)

Imid = 2I α=π/2 (where I α=π/2 is the intensity due to one spectral line at α=π/2)

(Here Imid is twice of I α=π/2 because the two intensity are reaching at position π/2, i.e., one is due to
source λ and another due to λ+dλ.)

𝛑 𝟐
𝐀𝟐 (𝐬𝐢𝐧 ) 𝐀𝟐 (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛂)𝟐
𝟐
Imid = 2. 𝛑 𝟐
(since intensity due to sigle slit is given by I = 𝛂𝟐
)
( )
𝟐

𝐀𝟐 𝟖𝐈𝟎
Imid = 8 →
𝛑𝟐 𝛑𝟐

𝐈𝐦𝐢𝐝 𝟖
= 𝟐
𝐈𝟎 𝛑
Q. Find expression of resolving power of a Grating.

Resolving Power of a Grating:

Plane wave front of Sodium light (say)

m = (nN+1) minimum nNth maximum (say) due to

due to source of source of wavelength (λ +d λ)
S1 wavelength λ
nNth maximum (say) due to
(θ +dθ) dθ source of wavelength λ
S2
θ

Emission spectra of Sodium light has two spectral lines, at λ = 5890 A0 and (λ +d λ) = 5896 A0 . The
difference between these two is dλ = 6 A0
Grating

According to Raleigh, the two equally intense spectral lines can be resolved if central maximum of
diffraction pattern due to one spectral line fall on minimum of diffraction pattern due to another
(spectral line). (Concentrate at encircled point in above figure only, there you find).

Maximum due to spectral line (λ+dλ):

(e + d)sin(θ + dθ) = ±n(λ + dλ) ……. [1]

And minimum due to spectral line (λ)

N(e + d)sin(θ + dθ) = ±(nN + 1)λ

N(e + d)sin(θ + dθ) = nNλ + λ ……. [2]

Multiplying eq. [1] by N

N(e + d)sin(θ + dθ) = ±nN(λ + dλ) (Since expression for minimum is N(e + d)sinθ = ±mλ )

or N(e + d)sin(θ + dθ) = nNλ + nNdλ ……. [3]

Eq. [2] = [3]

nNλ + λ = nNλ + nNdλ

𝛌
= 𝐧𝐍
𝐝𝛌
λ/dλ is defined as resolving power of a Grating. It depends upon the order (n) and no of lines
on a grating (N).

Q. Discuss the Dispersive power of a Grating.

Dispersive power of Grating:

Since maximum in a grating is given by

(e + d)sinθ = ±nλ

dθ
Or (e + d) cos θ =n
dλ

𝐝𝛉 𝐧
=
𝐝𝛌 (𝐞 + 𝐝) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉

Here dθ/dλ is defined as Dispersive power of a grating. This depends upon (e+d) grating element. And (e+d) =
2.54/N cm or we can say if N (lines per inch in a grating) increases then (e+d) decreases. Thus, dispersive power
(dθ/dλ) of a grating increase.