Welcome…

Lecture 1: Units & Measurement

Semester 1 - 2019

Aiyomba Ainao

…to Foundation Physics 1.

Time Table Foundation Physics 1

SEMESTER 1-2019- TIMETABLE
LECTURE: MR. AIYOMBA AINAO COURSE(S): PHY 111 Contact Hours: 5 hours • Course Code: PHY 111
TUTORS: Mr.E.Henry, Mr.B.Mek, Mr.H.Bunge, Mr.J.Sao, Mr.P.Gena, Mr.H.Ronnie, Ms.N.Lazuta • Level: 1
TIME MONDAY TUESDAY WEDNESDAY THURSDAY FRIDAY • Credit points: 15CP,
8:00 PHY 111 (TG1) (SL1) PHY 111 (TG2) (SL1)
PHY 111 (LECTURE)
MSA • Lecture: 2 hrs,
9:00 PHY 111 (TG1) (SL1)??
PHY 111 (LECTURE)
MSA PHY 111 (TG3) (SL1)
• Practical: 2 hrs
10:00 • Tutorial: 1hr
11:00
• Lecturer: Aiyomba AINAO
12:00 LUNCH BREAK
1:00 PHY 111 (PG 8/9) PHY 111 (PG 7) PHY 111 (PG 12) PHY 111 (PG 3) PHY 111 (PG 11)
• Tutor(S): Mr.E.Henry, Mr.B.Mek,
2:00 PHY 111 (PG 8/9) PHY 111 (PG 7) PHY 111 (PG 12) PHY 111 (PG 3) PHY 111 (PG 11) Mr.H.Bunge, Mr.J.Sao, Mr.P.Gena,
3:00 PHY 111 (PG 5/4) PHY 111 (PG 6) PHY 111 (PG 1) PHY 111 (PG 10) PHY 111 (PG 2) Mr.H.Ronnie, Ms.N.Lazuta
4:00 PHY 111 (PG 5/4) PHY 111 (PG 6) PHY 111 (PG 1) PHY 111 (PG 10) PHY 111 (PG 2)
5:00
6:00

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Course Description Assessment

• PHY 111 is the introductory physics
course to bridge secondary high school • Tutorial - 5%
physics to university physics and • Practical - 10%
consolidate basic concepts using • Assignment (x2) - 10%
algebraic and problem-based approaches • Supervised Test (x2) - 25%
• Supervised Exam - 50%

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1
 • Tests – A number of tests would be executed
during the course of the semester. You will
be notified of the scope and date a week or
Grading System
two in advance so that you are well prepared
for it. Grades Range
• Assignments – several assignments will be • A 85 – 100 %
executed during the course of the semester.
You will be given sufficient time to do the • B 75 – 84 %
assignment. Copying, cheating, plagiarism,
late submission, non-submission, etc. will • C 60 – 74 %
result in severe penalties.
• Exam – this exam will be at the end of the • D 49 – 59 %
semester and covers all work done during the
semester. • F 1 – 48 % or 0 %

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Observations
• The sciences are ultimately based on observations of the natural (& unnatural)

Physics
Introduction •
world
There are 2 types of observations:
• Physics may be defined as that branch of science which deals with • Qualitative
matter and energy and their interactions. – Subjective, touchy-feely
Example: the outside temperature is hot today
• These interactions of matter and energy are revealed in nature • Quantitative
through the behavior of objects, and the aim of physics is to explain – Objective, based on a number and a reference scale
and predict this behavior. – Quantitative observations are referred to as measurements
• This energy can take the form of motion, light, electricity, radiation, Example: the outside temperature is 80oF today
gravity . . . just about anything. • Notes:
– Quantitative observations are only as reliable as the measurement device and the
• Physics deals with matter on scales ranging from sub-atomic individual(s) performing the measurements
particles (i.e. the particles that make up the atom and the particles – The accuracy associated with a measurement (or set of measurements) is the often
that make up those particles) to stars and even entire galaxies. specified as the % Error:
• Therefore, Physics may also be defined as the science of nature. % Error =
accepted value - measured value
 100%
accepted value
– The precision associated with a set of measurements is the often specified as the %
Range:
R a n ge h ig h est v alu e - lo w e st v alu e
% R a n ge = 100 % = 100%
a verag e va lu e a verag e va lu e
– The standard deviation is similar to ½ the range value for a set of measurements
15-9

A. Laboratory Reports A Guide to Writing a Laboratory

Report
• Physics is an experimental science by
which it can be quantitatively A. Introduction
descript using experiments as lab • A Laboratory Report is a written description
reports. of what you did in an experiment.
• Lab Report is a written description of • Everytime you perform an experiment you
what you did in an experiment, the are expected to write a laboratory report on
it.
results obtained, analysis of this data
and your conclusions.
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2
 Laboratory Reports
Laboratory Reports This is a written description of what you did in an experiment, the results obtained,
analysis of this data and your conclusions.
The main parts of a practical report are: The main parts of a practical report are:
• Cover page - Heading • Cover page – Heading; Name; ID #; Level; Tutors Name. No fancy decorations,
• Aim – be brief
• Aim • Theory
• Theory (Abstract) • Apparatus – state all equipment used
• Apparatus • Diagram – 2-D ; simple, well labeled, use pencil/ruler
• Procedure/Method – To be in reported form. Precise, No numbering of steps; ½
• Diagram page at the most.
• Procedure/Method • Results – IMPORTANT !.... Table form, neat/tidy, correct units,
• Analysis & calculations – Do the required/appropriate calculations using YOUR
• Results OWN results [calculations,units,graphs]
• Analysis & calculations • Error analysis – at all times.
• Error analysis • Conclusions – Be precise. 1 or 2 sentences at the most.
• Questions – (may be included). Answers to these questions will help you make
• Conclusions (Recommendation) conclusions.
• Questions

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2. AIM
B. Parts of a Laboratory Report
• Brief statement of the reason why you are doing the
experiment
1. The Heading (Cover Page). • To verify certain physical principles (i.e check whether
they hold true under the conditions specified in your
Consists of: experiment),
• To establish the relationship between certain physical
• Name of the Course, date of the actual variables,
performance of the experiment, the experiment • To familiarize yourself with some physical quantities
and the instruments used in their measurement.
number, and the title of the experiment.
• Your Name, ID Number,
• Name of your lecturer & tutors
• No fancy decorations.

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3. Theory 4. Apparatus
• Briefly states the concepts involved and List of all the equipment that you
their background ideas. actually used in the experiment.
• State what you are going to do in this
experiment based on what you stated in
your aim.

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3
5. The Diagram
• As the name implies, the diagram is a pictorial
6. Procedure (or Method)
representation of the equipment used or of the
laboratory set-up built in the experiment • To be in reported speech, i.e. describe
[drawing of pieces of apparatus mentioned in 3 what you actually did.
are put together to carry out the experiment]. • Should occupy half the page.
• Your diagram must be clearly labelled.
• Your drawing should occupy half of a page.

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7. Results 8. Analysis & calculations

• Record results in table form, neat/tidy, correct
units.
• Be honest with your results CALCULATIONS,UNITS,GRAPHS
• Record even those which appear wrong or do not • Calculation - Almost all experiments
fit the overall pattern. involve calculations.
• Do not be selective in the choice of which results
to use or to discard. • Show atleast one sample calculation for
• Get into the habit of using them all if your work is each of the physical quantities
to be meaningful. determined, under this heading.
• If you discard results, explain on what grounds • There is no need for you to show all
but be sure your reason is not to idealize your calculations for the same quantity.
data; or you defeat the purpose of the experiment.

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8. Analysis & calculations 8. Analysis & calculations

CALCULATIONS,UNITS,GRAPHS
CALCULATIONS,UNITS,GRAPHS • Graphs –you are required to draw graphs using the data
obtained in the experiment.
• Units – As in your results, remember • Graphs permit us to make measurements e.g., the
to attach the required SI units for the gradient or the intersection on an axis.
• Also allow us to see whether all the results follow a
quantity you have just calculated. *A reasonable pattern or whether some may be very
inaccurate, in which case they need to be re-checked.
value without a unit is worse than a • Requirements: Title of the Graph, graph paper (whole
person without a name. sheet), appropriate scales (simple), Units, labelling
(name of quantities on X and Y axis), calculations
derived from the graph.

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4
 10. Conclusions
9. Error analysis
• More Important after the results.
• For ALL measurements involving • In conclusion you are expected to interpret your results
and draw your conclusion from them.
numerical measurements, you should • Your conclusion is the measure of what you have
estimate the attendant errors in each of the learned from the experiment.
measured quantities and combine these to • State everything you have found out or learnt.
• Experiment without conclusion has little value and
give the overall error. won’t receive much credit.
• Notes on Error Analysis will be send • If your results do not confirm the conclusions you
expected from the manual, do not disguise the fact. Note
through SCI 101 Gmail Group. the disagreement and try to explain its cause.

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11. Answers to Questions B. Units & Measurement

• Answers to these questions will help you • Physics is based on experimental observations and quantitative
make conclusions. measurements.
• In some experiments you will find • To be quantitative in Physics requires measurements
Questions, either scattered through the text
or at the end.
• Do not ignore these questions. Some of them
are intended to guide your conduct of the
experiment and other require an explicit
answer.
• Use your own judgement as to what is
expected.

March 13, 2019 27

Measurements
Introduction cont….
• Used to describe natural phenomena
• A quantitative observation
• Physical Quantity
• Needs defined standards
A variable used to describe a physical • Characteristics of standards for measurements
phenomenon and to which a numerical value – Readily accessible
can be assigned. – Possess some property that can be measured
reliably
Examples: Length, Force, Energy, – Must yield the same results when used by anyone
Temperature, Pressure, etc. anywhere
– Cannot change with time

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5
 Measurement Standards of Fundamental Quantities
• Standardized systems
• Consists of 2 parts – Agreed upon by some authority, usually a
– Quantity - Number governmental body
• SI – Systéme International
– Unit – tells the scale – Agreed to in 1960 by an international committee
being used – Main system used in this time
– In 1960, standards bodies control and define Système Internationale (SI)
Units provide a scale on which to represent unit as,
the results of a measurement. – LENGTH: Meter - L
– MASS: Kilogram - M
– TIME: Second - T
“Time is God’s way of making sure
everything doesn’t happen at once”
(Unknown)

SI Unit for 3 Basic Quantities Classes of units

Length is the 1-D measure of distance.
• Quantities such as area and volume, and their associated units, are ultimately A standard used to measure a physical quantity is called a unit of that
derived from measures of length quantity. There are two classes of units Fundamental or basic units and
Definition of SI Unit: The meter is the length of the path traveled by light (in vacuum) Derived units.
during a time interval of 1/299,792,458 s (or roughly 3.33564 ns)
Examples of units derived from length (in this case radius, r): 1. Fundamental or basic unit
1. Area of a circle = Acircle = r2 {units are m2} The units for Length, mass, time, temperature, electric current, luminous intensity and
amount of a substance are regarded as Fundamental or Basic units. These have been
chosen for convenience, not because they have special significance.
4
2. Volume of a sphere = Vsphere =  r 3{units are m3}
3 2. Derived unit
Time is the physical quantity that measures either: Any unit which is essentially a combination of fundamental units is referred to as a
Derived Unit.
1. when did an event take place
Example: Density, Energy, Pressure, Force, Velocity and Acceleration,
2. the duration of the event Volume, etc…
Definition of the SI Unit: The second is the time taken by 9,192,631,770 oscillations of
the light emitted by a cesium-133 atom

Mass is the measure of inertia for a body (or loosely speaking the amount of matter
present)
Definition of the SI Unit: The kilogram is the amount of mass in a platinum-iridium
cylinder of 3.9 cm height and diameter. 15-34

Fundamental Quantities and SI Units Derived SI Units (examples)

Basic Quantity  Must be defined in terms of a Derived Quantity  Defined in terms of combinations of
standard (meter, kilogram, second). basic quantities
Length meter m Quantity unit Symbol

Mass kilogram kg Volume cubic meter m3

Time second s Density kilograms per cubic meter kg/m3

Electric Current ampere A Speed meter per second m/s

Thermodynamic Temperature kelvin K Newton kg m/ s2 N
Luminous Intensity candela cd Energy Joule (kg m2/s2) J
Amount of Substance mole mol Pressure Pascal (kg/(ms2) Pa

6
 Other Units Other Unit Systems cont…
• There are 3 commonly used unit systems. • U.S. customary system: foot, slug, second
• British system: foot-pound-second
– English (used in the United States) • Cgs system: cm, gram, second
• We will use SI units in this course, but it is useful to know
Imperial Systems conversions between systems.
– 1 mile = 1609 m = 1.609 km 1 ft = 0.3048 m = 30.48 cm
– Metric (broadly used across the World)
– 1 m = 39.37 in. = 3.281 ft 1 in. = 0.0254 m = 2.54 cm
– SI (most formal version of Metric used in – 1 lb = 0.465 kg 1 oz = 28.35 g 1 slug = 14.59 kg
science) – 1 day = 24 hours = 24 * 60 minutes = 24 * 60 * 60 seconds

Symbols Methods of Measurement

• The symbol used in an equation is not necessarily the Measurement of a physical quantity means comparing it with some
reference standard.
symbol used for its dimension
1. Estimation
• Some quantities have one symbol used consistently If accurate measurement is necessary it is always advisable to estimate.
– For example, time is t virtually all the time This would help; you to avoid silly mistakes that frequently take place
while calculating. For better estimations, specially for large numbers,
• Some quantities have many symbols used, depending comparison is easier to make.
upon the specific situation 2. Approximation
– For example, lengths may be x, y, z, r, d, h, etc. In measurements approximation also plays an important role. In day to
• The dimensions will be given with a capitalized, day practice we always use approximation. You must have heard people
saying "It is approximately five minutes walk from the church."
nonitalicized letter
• The algebraic symbol will be italicized

15-40

Chapter 1

4. Accuracy and Precision

• Accuracy is a description of how close a measurement is to the
correct or accepted value of the quantity measured.
3. Quantitative Versus Qualitative
Most experiments in physics require the observations made to • Precision is the degree of exactness of a measurement.
be quantitative rather than qualitative. If observations are only
• A numeric measure of confidence in a measurement or result is
descriptive or qualitative, they are likely to be imprecise and known as uncertainty. A lower uncertainty indicates greater
could cause disagreements between experimenters. For confidence.
example, scientists cannot merely say that an object is large
or small. Instead they have to specify its size as a quantity,
that is, with a number and using a standard unit such as
kilogram. This is called a quantitative observation.

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7
 PRECISION VS. ACCURACY
5. Rounding
A B C D
• Last retained digit is increased by 1 if the last digit
dropped is greater than 5
• Last retained digit remains as it is if the last digit
dropped is less than 5
• If the last digit dropped is equal to 5, the retained digit
should be rounded to the nearest even number
• A—Good precision and • C—Good precision and poor • Saving rounding until the final result will help
accuracy accuracy eliminate accumulation of errors
• B—Some accuracy and poor • D—Poor precision and
precision accuracy

6. Scientific Notation Scientific notation consists of two parts:

• Scientific Notation involves expressing a

number in terms of a power of 10. The
number is written as: (a number between 1
and 10) times (10 raised to a power).

Scientific Notation
Scientific Notation
• Representing Large Numbers
The power of 10 depends on:
• The number of places the decimal point is 93,000,000 miles from the
moved. Earth to the Sun (sunlight
takes 8 minutes to reach us)
• The direction the decimal point is moved.

Left  Positive exponent

Right  Negative exponent

Number between 1 Appropriate power

and 10 of ten

8
 To change scientific notation to
Scientific Notation
standard form…
• Representing Small Numbers
0.000167
• Simply move the decimal point to the right
To obtain a number between 1 and 10 for positive exponent 10.
we must move the decimal point to the • Move the decimal point to the left for
right.
negative exponent 10.

(Use zeros to fill in places.)

0.000167 = 1.67 10-4

10-4 = 1/10000 (one ten-thousandth)

Convert the following numbers to scientific notation: Operation with Scientific Notation
• 329 • 35.9 x 103 Multiplication
• 700,000 • 556.67 x 104 - multiply the numbers, add the indices
• 20090 • 22.7 x 10-3 1.2 x 104 multiplied by 5 x 106 =
• 0.000034 • 0.0348 x 10-1 Division
• 0.01023 • 1845 x 105
- divide the numbers, subtract the indices
• 123.4 5.5 x 108 divided by 1.1 x 102 =
• 123.4 x 1023
• 45.607 (For all operations reconvert answers to full
• 0.00345 x 107
scientific notation)

Combined Operations – Give the answer in scientific notation

Scientific Notation Math
7.5 x 105
• Addition or subtraction: __________
Convert to the same base and perform the operation 3 x 103
Then reconvert to scientific notation
2 x 106 x 1.5 x 102
________________________
1.04 x 103 plus 6.8 x 102 = 5 x 103

6.5 x 105 x 4 x 104

________________________
2 x 10-3

7.5 x 10-5
______________________
3 x 103 x 5 x 10-6

9
 7. Significant Numbers
Note the 4 rules
When reading a measured value, all nonzero digits should be • RULE 3. Zeros at the end of a number and after the decimal
counted as significant. There is a set of rules for determining point are significant. It is assumed that these zeros would not be
if a zero in a measurement is significant or not. shown unless they were significant. 138.200 m has six
• RULE 1. Zeros in the middle of a number are like any other significant figures. If the value were known to only four
digit; they are always significant. Thus, 94.072 g has five significant figures, we would write 138.2 m.[Trailing Zeros].
significant figures. • RULE 4. Zeros at the end of a number and before an implied
• RULE 2. Zeros at the beginning of a number are not decimal point may or may not be significant. We cannot tell
significant; they act only to locate the decimal point. Thus, whether they are part of the measurement or whether they act
0.0834 cm has three significant figures, and 0.029 07 mL has only to locate the unwritten but implied decimal point unless the
four.[preceeding or leading zeros/placeholders] decimal is used at the end.

Operations With Significant Figures –

Significant Figures, examples Summary
• 0.0075 m has 2 significant figures
– The leading zeros are placeholders only • The rule for addition and subtraction are different than the
– Can write in scientific notation to show more clearly: rule for multiplication and division
7.5 x 10-3 m for 2 significant figures • For adding and subtracting, the number of decimal places
• 10.0 m has 3 significant figures is the important consideration
– The decimal point gives information about the reliability of
the measurement
• For multiplying and dividing, the number of significant
figures is the important consideration
• 1500 m is ambiguous
– Use 1.5 x 103 m for 2 significant figures
– Use 1.50 x 103 m for 3 significant figures
– Use 1.500 x 103 m for 4 significant figures

SI Unit Prefixes
Prefixes of units Name Symbol
Parts of words like micro-, milli-, kilo- and mega- which represent multiples of To Convert
giga- G 109 from Large
or fractions of one unit are called prefixes. Micro- always means one millionth
of, milli-always means one thousandth of, kilo- always means one thousand, mega- M 106 Unit to
and mega- always means one million. Small, we
kilo- k 103 MULTIPLY
The prefixes found in common use are tabulated below: deci- d 10-1 with Powers
To Convert of 10*
centi- c 10-2
from Small
Unit to milli- m 10-3
Large, we micro- μ 10-6
DIVIDE
with Powers nano- n 10-9
of 10* pico- p 10-12
15-59 *This represents the number of zeros you take to reach to the final
unit.

10
 Importance of units
Importance of units • In order to report the results of
experiments, we need to agree on a
system of units to be used.
• Theories in physics are developed on the basis of
• Only if all equipment is calibrated with
experimental observations, or are tested by comparing respect to same standard can we
predictions with the results of experiments. compare the results of different
experiments.
• Being able to carry out experiments and understand • Although different units can be used to
their limitations is a critical part of physics or any report different measurements, we need
to know what units are used and how to
experimental science. do unit conversions.
• In every experiment you make errors; understanding • Using the wrong units can lead to
expensive mistakes.
what to do with these errors is required if you want to
compare experiments and theories.

Unit Conversion Conversions

In physics, converting units from one unit system to another (especially within the
Metric system) can appear daunting at first glance. However, with a little
guidance, and a lot of practice, you can develop the necessary skill set to As a rule of thumb your problem set up should
master this process
look like this:
Example: How is 25.2 miles/hour expressed in m/s?
1. Eliminate: {assign mi units to the denominator and hr units to the numerator of the
conversion factor}
mi  25.2 mi   ??  ?? hr  m
25.2   
hr  1 hr   ?? mi  ?? 
= ??
s Starting Units x Desired Units = Desired Units
Starting Units
2. Replace: {assign m units to the numerator and s units to the denominator of the
conversion factor}
m i  25.2 m i   ?? m   ?? hr  m Given from Conversion Solution to
25 .2      = ??
hr  1 hr   ?? mi   ?? s  s Problem Factor the Problem
3. Relate: {assign the corresponding value to its unit, 1 mi = 1609 m & 1 hr = 3600 s}
mi  25.2 mi  1609 m 1 hr  m
25.2    = 11.3
hr  1 hr  1 mi  3600 s  s

Converting between different systems of units

Conversion steps
– 1 inch = 2.54 cm  1 inch / 2.54 cm = 1
– 1m = 3.28 ft  1 m / 3.28 ft = 1 • Step 1: Write what is given into the equation.
– 1 mile = 5280 ft  5280 ft / 1 mile = 1 • Step 2: Write the conversion factor.
– 1 hr = 60 min = 3600 s  1 hr / 3600 s = 1 Whatever unit is on the top, goes on the bottom.
• Example: Convert miles per hour to meters per second: • Step 3: Cancel any labels that are the same unit.
• Step 4: Check the Units
mi 1 mi
1   1 1 1 • if it is the same, stop and multiply
hr hr
• if it is different go back to step 2
mi 1 mi 5280 ft 1 m 1 hr m 1m
1      0.447 
hr hr mi 3.28 ft 3600 s s 2 s

11
 Length, Time & Mass
Basic Quantities and Their Dimension Length is the 1-D measure of distance.
• Quantities such as area and volume, and their associated units, are ultimately
derived from measures of length
Definition of SI Unit: The meter is the length of the path traveled by light (in vacuum)
during a time interval of 1/299,792,458 s (or roughly 3.33564 ns)
• Dimension has a specific meaning – it Examples of units derived from length (in this case radius, r):
denotes the physical nature of a quantity 1. Area of a circle = Acircle = r2 {units are m2}

• Dimensions are denoted with square 4

2. Volume of a sphere = Vsphere =  r 3{units are m3}
brackets 3
– Length [L] Time is the physical quantity that measures either:
1. when did an event take place
– Mass [M] 2. the duration of the event
Definition of the SI Unit: The second is the time taken by 9,192,631,770 oscillations of
– Time [T] the light emitted by a cesium-133 atom

Mass is the measure of inertia for a body (or loosely speaking the amount of matter
present)
Definition of the SI Unit: The kilogram is the amount of mass in a platinum-iridium
cylinder of 3.9 cm height and diameter.

Dimensions and Units

Derived quantities and dimensions
• Each dimension can have many actual units
• Table for the dimensions and units of some derived
m2
quantities
m3
m/s
m/s2
N=kg•m/s2
N/m2=kg/m•s2
kg/m3
…

Dimensional Analysis Dimensional Analysis, example

• Technique to check the correctness of an equation or • Given the equation: x = ½ at 2
to assist in deriving an equation • Check dimensions on each side:
• Dimensions (length, mass, time, combinations) can be L
treated as algebraic quantities L  T2  L
T2
– add, subtract, multiply, divide
• Both sides of equation must have the same dimensions • The T2’s cancel, leaving L for the
• Any relationship can be correct only if the dimensions dimensions of each side
on both sides of the equation are the same – The equation is dimensionally correct
• Cannot give numerical factors: this is its limitation
– There are no dimensions for the constant

12
 Dimensional Analysis Example
Checking equations with dimensional analysis:
Check the equation for dimensional consistency:
1
x f  xi  vi t  at 2 mc 2
2 mgh  2
 mc 2
(L/T2)T2=L 1  (v / c )
L Here, m is a mass, g is an acceleration,
(L/T)T=L
c is a velocity, h is a length
• Each term must have same dimension
• Two variables can not be added if dimensions are
different
• Multiplying variables is always fine
• Numbers (e.g. 1/2 or p) are dimensionless

Example
Example
Consider the equation:
Given “x” has dimensions of distance, “u” has
dimensions of velocity, “m” has dimensions of mass and
2
v Mm “g” has dimensions of acceleration.
m G 2
r r
Is this equation dimensionally valid?
Where m and M are masses, r is a radius and (4 / 3)ut
x
v is a velocity. 1  (2gt 2 / x) Yes
What are the dimensions of G ?
Is this equation dimensionally valid?
L3/(MT2)
vt
x No
1  mgt 2

Errors Analysis
Measurement and Uncertainty
f f
df  dx  dy  ...
x y

A 
Error~dA 
r
dr 
r
 
 r 2 dr  2 rdr  0 . 0063 m 2

dA 2 rdr 2  0 .01 m 
Relative Error =    0 .20 or 20%
A  r2  0 .10 m 

V  4 3 2 3
Error~dV  dr    r  dr  4 r dr  0.0013 m
r r  3 
dV 4 r 2dr 3  0.01 m 
Relative Error =    0.30 or 30%
V 4 3 0.10 m
r
3

13
 VERNIER CALIPER

For vernier caliper:

Total reading = MSR + (VSR x LC)

MSR = Main Scale Reading MSR = 2.7cm x 10 = 27mm

VSR = Vernier Scale Reading VSR = 1(5) = 5 x 0.02 mm = 0.1mm

LC = Least Count Total Reading = 27.1 mm

MSR = .9 cm x 10 = 9 mm
VSR =3.6(5) = 18 x 0.02 mm = .36 mm
Total Reading = 9.36 mm

SCREW GAUGE/ MICRO METER

Micrometer: Is a tool designed to measure
the thickness of an object

MSR = ______________________________

VSR = ______________________________

Total Reading = _______________________

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 *What is the reading of this micrometer?

*Here readings has been written in decimeters.

For micrometer:

Total reading = MSR + (HSR x LC)

MSR = Main Scale Reading MSR = 7 mm

HSR = Head Scale Reading HSR = 0 x 0.01 mm = 0 mm
LC = Least Count Total Reading = 7 mm

MSR = 8 mm
HSR = 12 x 0.01 mm = 0.12 mm
Total Reading = 8.12 mm
Problem Solving Strategy

MSR = __________________________
HSR = __________________________
Total Reading = ___________________

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