Vehicle Dynamics and Control

Jan Åslund
[email protected]
Associate Professor

Dept. Electrical Engineering

Vehicular Systems
Linköping University
Sweden

Lecture 6

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 6 1 / 49

Kurvtagning

I kapitel 5.4 studeras kurvtagning för tre fall:

Konstant radie, figur 5.15.

Konstant hastighet, figur 5.16.
Konstant styrvinkel, figur 5.17.

Jag kommer nu att gå igenom sambandet mellan kurvorna i figurerna och
däckens (olinjära) egenskaper.

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 6 2 / 49

Kurvtagning: Figur 5.15

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 6 3 / 49

Kurvtagning: Figur 5.16

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 6 4 / 49

Kurvtagning: Figur 5.17

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 6 5 / 49

Kurvtagning: Utgår från en olinjär modell

Utgår från att Fyf och Fyr är givna som funktioner av α.
r
Fy

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 6 6 / 49

Normalkrafter och laterala krafter
De laterala krafterna ges av

Fyf + Fyr = may

Fyf l1 − Fyr l2 = 0

Normalkrafterna ges av

Fzf + Fzr = mg
Fzf l1 − Fzr l2 = 0

Vi kan som tidigare beräkna krafterna, men genom att studera

ekvationerna kan man inse att:
Fyf Fyr ay V2
= = =
Fzf Fzr g gR

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 6 7 / 49

Arbetsgång
Vi beräknar först normalkrafterna
l2
Fzf = mg
L
l1
Fzr = mg
L

Därefter ritar vi de skalade kurvorna Fyf /Fzf och Fyr /Fzr . För en baktung
bil får vi kurvorna
Fy f
Fz

α
Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 6 8 / 49
Arbetsgång
För en given kurvradie och hastighet är som bekant
Fyf Fyr ay V2
= = =
Fzf Fzr g gR
Genom att ta skillnaden mellan vinklarna αf och αr i horisontell led får vi
kurvan
ay
g

αf − αr
Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 6 9 / 49
Konstant radie
Studerar nu fallet att radien R är konstant. Styrvinkeln ges som vanligt av
ekvationen
L
δ f = + αf − αr
R
Detta samband kan avläsas i figuren
ay
g

δf

αf − αr L/R

Jämför med figur 5.15.

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 6 10 / 49
Understyrningsgradienten Kus

I det olinjära fallet med konstant kurvradie ges understyrningsgradienten

av derivatan
d(δf )
Kus =
d(ay /g )
Konsistent med definitionen i det linjära fallet då

L ay
δf = + Kus
R g

För ökande hastighet så gäller som tidigare att

δf ökar om Kus > 0

δf oförändrad om Kus = 0
δf minskar om Kus < 0

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 6 11 / 49

Konstant hastighet

Studerar nu fallet att hastigheten V är konstant.

Det gäller fortfarande att
L
δf = + αf − αr
R
där
L gL V 2 gL ay
= 2· = 2 ·
R V gR V
|{z} g
konst.

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 6 12 / 49

Konstant hastighet

Sambandet mellan styrvinkeln δf och laterala accelerationen kan läsas av i

figuren
ay
g

gL ay
L/R = V2
· g

δf

αf − αr L/R
Jämför med figur 5.16.
Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 6 13 / 49
Konstant styrvinkel
Slutligen studerar vi fallet där styrvinkeln δf är konstant.
ay
g

δf

αf − αr L/R
I detta fall kan vi avläsa hur krökningen 1/R beror av ay /g .
Jämför med figur 5.17.
Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 6 14 / 49
Stability of a shopping cart

The Americana’s CC-12 Double Basket Convenience Metal Wire Shopping

Cart (Available in ten different colors):

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 6 15 / 49

Stability of a shopping cart:
The stability of the shopping cart will now be analyzed. Assume that
shopping cart is moving on a straight line and at some point the steady
motion is perturbed. We begin with the derivation of the equations of
motion and a body-fixed coordinate system attached to the center of mass
of the cart will be used in the analysis:

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 6 16 / 49

Stability of a shopping cart: Body-fixed coordinate system

For any time dependant vector u measured in a body-fixed coordinate

system rotating with angular velocity ω, the absolute rate of change is
du du
= +ω×u
dt dt rel

where the first term in the right-hand side denotes the rate of change of
the vector seen in the body-fixed coordinate system.

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 6 17 / 49

Stability of a shopping cart: Body-fixed coordinate system
Vx

Ωz

Vy

With the velocity vector as u and the system rotating around the z-axis,
(pointing downwards) with angular velocity Ωz , the relation
du du
= +ω×u
dt dt rel
becomes
         
ax V̇x 0 Vx V̇x − Ωz Vy
ay  = V̇y  +  0  × Vy  = V̇y + Ωz Vx 
az 0 Ωz Vz 0
Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 6 18 / 49
Transient beteende
Använder ett koordinatsystem som är fixt i förhållande till bilen.

Första ordningens approximation av hastighetsändringen i x-led:

(Vx + ∆Vx ) cos ∆θ − (Vy + ∆Vy ) sin ∆θ − Vx ∼ ∆Vx − Vy ∆θ

Dela med ∆t och låt ∆t gå mot noll:

dVx dθ
ax = − Vy = V̇x − Vy Ωz
dt dt

På samma sätt fås i y -led:

(Vy + ∆Vy ) cos ∆θ + (Vx + ∆Vx ) sin ∆θ − Vy ∼ ∆Vy + Vx ∆θ

dVy dθ
ay = + Vx = V̇y + Vx Ωz
dt dt

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 6 19 / 49

Figur 5.18

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 6 20 / 49

Stability of a shopping cart
Vx

l1
Ωz

Vy

l2

With ax = V̇x − Ωz Vy and ay = V̇y + Ωz Vx the plane equations of motion

for the shopping cart become
m(V̇x − Ωz Vy ) = 0
m(V̇y + Ωz Vx ) = F
Iz Ω̇z = −l2 F
It is assumed that the side velocity at the rear is equal to zero, i.e.,
Vy − l2 Ωz = 0
Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 6 21 / 49
Stability of a shopping cart

The three equations

Iz Ω̇z = −l2 F
m(V̇y + Ωz Vx ) = F
Vy = l2 Ωz

give

Iz Ω̇z = −l2 F = −l2 m(V̇y + Ωz Vx ) = −l2 m(l2 Ω̇y + Ωz Vx )

which can be rewritten as

(Iz + ml22 )Ω̇z + ml2 Vx Ωz = 0

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 6 22 / 49

Stability of a shopping cart

The solution of the differential equation (Iz + ml22 )Ω̇z + ml2 Vx Ωz = 0 is

Iz + ml22
Ωz = e −t/τ , τ=
ml2 Vx
It can be seen that the yaw rate Ωz tends to zero as time tends to infinity,
if Vx > 0. However, this does not imply that the direction of the cart will
return to the direction the cart was traveling in before the perturbation.
If the basic motion is defined as Ωz = 0 and Vy = 0, then the perturbed
motion approaches the basic motion and the system is stable.
Above it was assumed that the cart was traveling forward (Vx > 0). If the
cart is pushed backwards (Vx < 0) the cart becomes unstable (τ < 0).

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 6 23 / 49

Stability: Question of today

Now, we shall study the stability of the car after a disturbance.

Direction of motion

We have seen in the previous lecture that the car will tend to turn in
different directions depending on the sign of the understeer gradient Kus .
Today’s question is whether the car will tend to return to the basic motion,
that we define in the same way as before to be Ωz = 0 and Vy = 0.

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 6 24 / 49

Stability: Equations of motion

The forces acting on the vehicle:

δf
Fxr
Fxf
Fyr Fyf

Equations of motions:

m(V̇x − Vy Ωz ) = Fxf cos δf + Fxr − Fyf sin δf

m(V̇y + Vx Ωz ) = Fyr + Fyf cos δf + Fxf sin δf
Iz Ω̇z = l1 Fyf cos δf − l2 Fyr + l1 Fxf sin δf

The left-hand side is the same as for the shopping cart and Vx and Vy are
the velocities in the body-fixed coordinate system.

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 6 25 / 49

Stability: Kinematics
In general:

VA
A VB
rAB

vB = vA + ω × rAB
Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 6 26 / 49
Stability: Kinematics

With A at center of gravity and B at the front/rear wheel:

l2 Ωz − Vy Ωz
δf
αr
αf Vx
Vx Vy Vx

Vy + l1 Ωz


      
Vx 0 l1 Vx
Front wheel: Vy  +  0  ×  0  = Vy + l1 Ωz 
0 Ωz 0 0

      
Vx 0 −l2 Vx
Rear wheel: Vy  +  0  ×  0  = Vy − l2 Ωz 
0 Ωz 0 0

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 6 27 / 49

Stability: Kinematics

l2 Ωz − Vy Ωz
δf
αr
αf Vx
Vx Vy Vx

Vy + l1 Ωz
Kinematics from the figure
Model for tire forces
l1 Ωz + Vy
αf = δf −
Vx Fyf = 2Cαf αf
l2 Ωz − Vy Fyr = 2Cαr αr
αr =
Vx

From now it will be assumed that the longitudinal velocity Vx is constant

and will play the role of a parameter in the analysis.

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 6 28 / 49

Stability
From the previous slides:

m(V̇y + Vx Ωz ) = Fyr + Fyf cos δf + Fxf sin δf

Iz Ω̇z = l1 Fyf cos δf − l2 Fyr + l1 Fxf sin δf

   
l1 Ωz + Vy l2 Ωz − Vy
Fyf = 2Cαf δf − , Fyr = 2Cαr
Vx Vx
Can be rearranged in the form
   
2Cαf + 2Cαr 2l1 Cαf − 2l2 Cαr
mV̇y + Vy + mVx + Ωz = 2Cαf δf (t)
Vx Vx
| {z } | {z }
a1 a2
2 + 2l22 Cαr
   
2l1 Cαf − 2l2 Cαr 2l1 Cαf
Iz Ω̇z + Vy + Ωz = 2l1 Cαf δf (t)
Vx Vx
| {z } | {z }
a3 a4

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 6 29 / 49

Stability
The system
   
2Cαf + 2Cαr 2l1 Cαf − 2l2 Cαr
mV̇y + Vy + mVx + Ωz = 2Cαf δf (t)
Vx V
| {z } | {z x }
a1 a2
 2
2l1 Cαf + 2l22 Cαr
  
2l1 Cαf − 2l2 Cαr
Iz Ω̇z + Vy + Ωz = 2l1 Cαf δf (t)
Vx Vx
| {z } | {z }
a3 a4

can be written in matrix form

M ẋ + Ax = u(t)

where
     
m 0 a1 a2 2Cαf δf (t)
M= , A= , u=
0 Iz a3 a4 2l1 Cαf δf (t)

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 6 30 / 49

Stability
From the basic course in linear algebra we now that the solution of a
system of linear equations
ẋ = Ax
is a linear combination of vectors in the form

e λt X

where λ is an eigenvalue of A and X is the corresponding eigenvector.

Assume that the solution of M ẋ + Ax = 0 is of the form

x(t) = e st X

where s i a constant, possibly complex a number. Substitute the

expression into the system of differential equations:
 
d
M ẋ + Ax = ẋ = e st X = se st X = e st (sM + A)X = 0
dt

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 6 31 / 49

Stability

The relation
e st (sM + A)X = 0
has to fulfilled for all values of t and the only possibility is that the vector
X is the solution of the homogeneous system of equations

(sM + A)X = 0

A non-trivial solution (X 6= 0) exists if and only

det(sM + A) = 0

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 6 32 / 49

Stability

To summarize the discussion. The procedure to calculate the solutions of

the form
x(t) = e st X
of the system of differential equations

M ẋ + Ax = 0

is to first determine the eigenvalues s by solving the characteristic equation

det(sM + A) = 0

and then for each eigenvalue s determine the corresponding eigenvectors

by solving system of linear equations

(sM + A)X = 0

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 6 33 / 49

Stability
With    
m 0 a1 a2
M= , A=
0 Iz a3 a4
where a1 , a2 , a3 , and a4 was defined by
   
2Cαf + 2Cαr 2l1 Cαf − 2l2 Cαr
mV̇y + Vy + mVx + Ωz = 2Cαf δf (t)
Vx Vx
| {z } | {z }
a1 a2
2 + 2l22 Cαr
   
2l1 Cαf − 2l2 Cαr 2l1 Cαf
Iz Ω̇z + Vy + Ωz = 2l1 Cαf δf (t)
Vx Vx
| {z } | {z }
a3 a4

the characteristic equation becomes

 
sm + a1 a2
det(sM + A) = det
a3 sIz a4
= mIz s 2 + (Iz a1 + ma4 )s + (a1 a4 − a2 a3 ) = 0
Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 6 34 / 49
Stability

The system is stable if and only if the solutions of

det(sM + A) = mIz s 2 + (Iz a1 + ma4 )s + (a1 a4 − a2 a3 ) = 0

are all in the left half of the complex plane. The solutions of a second
order equation
s 2 + ps + q = 0
is given by the formula
r
p p2
s=− ± −q
2 4
I can be seen that solutions are all in the left half of the complex plane if
and only if p > 0 and q > 0. It easy to verify that mIz > 0, and
Iz a1 + ma4 > 0. Hence, stability depends only on the sign of the
expression a1 a4 − a2 a3 .

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 6 35 / 49

Stability
It can be shown that
a1 a4 − a2 a3 > 0
where a1 , a2 , a3 , and a4 was defined by
   
2Cαf + 2Cαr 2l1 Cαf − 2l2 Cαr
mV̇y + Vy + mVx + Ωz = 2Cαf δf (t)
Vx Vx
| {z } | {z }
a1 a2
2 + 2l22 Cαr
   
2l1 Cαf − 2l2 Cαr 2l1 Cαf
Iz Ω̇z + Vy + Ωz = 2l1 Cαf δf (t)
Vx Vx
| {z } | {z }
a3 a4

is equivalent to the condition

Vx2 Wf V2
 
Wr
L+ − = L + x Kus > 0
g Cαf Cαr g

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 6 36 / 49

Stability: Answer to the Question of the day

The condition
V2 Vx2
 
Wf Wr
L+ x − =L+ Kus > 0
g Cαf Cαr g

can only be violated if

Kus < 0
i.e. the car is understeer and
r
gL
V ≥ = Vcrit
−Kus

Answer to the question:

The car is unstable if and only if Kus < 0 and V ≥ Vcrit .

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 6 37 / 49

Dragbil med semi-trailer: Kurvtagning

Figur 5.26 visar en förenklad modell.

Styrvinkel
V2
 
Lt Wf Wr
δf = + −
R C C gR
| αf {z αr}
Kus,t

Vinkeln mellan dragbil och semi-trailer

Ws V 2
 
Ls Wr
Γ= + −
R C C gR
| αr {z αs}
Kus,s

Förstärkning:
Γ Ls /R + Kus,s (V 2 /gR)
=
δf Lt /R + Kus,t (V 2 /gR)

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 6 38 / 49

Kurvtagning: Figur 5.26

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 6 39 / 49

Dragbil med semi-trailer: Fall 1

Kus,t och Kus,s är båda positiva.

Förstärkningen Γ/δf är alltid postiv.

Förstärkningen är växande om Kus,s /Kus,t > Ls /Lt och avtagande om
Kus,s /Kus,t < Ls /Lt .
Se figur 5.27.

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 6 40 / 49

Kurvtagning: Figur 5.27

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 6 41 / 49

Dragbil med semi-trailer: Fall 2

Kus,t är positiv och Kus,s är negativ.

För hastigheter över s
gLs
Vct =
−Kus,s
är förstärkningen negativ.
Se figur 5.28.

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 6 42 / 49

Kurvtagning: Figur 5.28

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 6 43 / 49

Dragbil med semi-trailer: Fall 3

Kus,t är negativ och Kus,s är positiv.

När hastigheten närmar sig det kritiska värdet
s
gLt
Vcrit =
−Kus,t

går förstärkningen mot oändligheten.

Bilen fälls ihop som en fällkniv (”Jackknifing”). Se figur 5.29.

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 6 44 / 49

Kurvtagning: Figur 5.29

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 6 45 / 49

Dragbil med semi-trailer: Fall 4

Kus,t och Kus,s är båda negativa och Kus,s /Kus,t < Ls /Lt .
Det händer samma sak som i föregående fall.
Se figur 5.30.

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 6 46 / 49

Kurvtagning: Figur 5.30

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 6 47 / 49

Dragbil med semi-trailer: Fall 5

Kus,t och Kus,s är båda negativa och Kus,s /Kus,t > Ls /Lt .
Förstärkningen blir negativ för hastigheter över den karakteristiska
hastigheten s
gLs
Vct =
−Kus,s

När hastigheten närmar sig den kritiska hastigheten

s
gLt
Vcrit =
−Kus,t

går kvoten mot −∞ och trailern svänger ut (”trailer swing”).

Se figur 5.31.

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 6 48 / 49

Kurvtagning: Figur 5.31

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 6 49 / 49