Vehicle Dynamics and Control

Jan Åslund
[email protected]
Associate Professor

Dept. Electrical Engineering

Vehicular Systems
Linköping University
Sweden

Lecture 1

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 1 1 / 43

Course Literature

Course book is Theory of Ground Vehicles, 4th edition, by J.Y. Wong

You can borrow a copy during the course.
Chapter 1: Mechanics of Pneumatic Tires
Chapter 3: Performance Characteristics of Road Vehicles
Chapter 5: Handling Characteristics of Road Vehicles
Chapter 7: Vehicle Ride Characteristics
Some additional material is taken from the books Vehicle Dynamics,
Stability and Control, 2nd edition, D. Karnopp, and Tire and Vehicle
Dynamics, H. Pacejka.

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Chapter 1: Mechanics of Pneumatic Tires

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Chapter 3: Performance Characteristics of Road Vehicles

F = ma

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Chapter 3: Performance Characteristics of Road Vehicles

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Chapter 5: Handling Characteristics of Road Vehicles

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Chapter 7: Vehicle Ride Characteristics

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L-building

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L-building

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L-building

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L-building

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L-building

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Stability

Direction of motion

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Stability

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Stability

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Stability

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Tapered wheels

Why is the wheels on a train tapered?

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Tapered wheels: Basic motion

Consider a wheelset with tapered wheels on a rail. In the steady

motion/basic motion, the wheels are moving on a straight line in the
longitudinal direction:

2r0

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 1 18 / 43

Tapered wheels: A train taking a turn

One reason for using tapered wheels is illustrated in the following figure
showing a wheelset of a train taking a right turn:
ψ
2r0 + 2ψy 2r0 − 2ψy
y

The longitudinal speed is larger for the outside wheel Vxl than for the
inside wheel Vxr , but the rotational speed ω is the same. The basic motion
in this case includes a constant drift y in the lateral direction, which
compensates for this difference:

Vxl = (r0 + ψy )ω, Vxr = (r0 − ψy )ω

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 1 19 / 43

Tapered wheels: Perturbed motion

What will happen if the basic motion is perturbed?

Basic motion is shown to the left and perturbed motion to the right:
dy
θ≈ dx
ψ
Vxl

y ω

(x(t), y (t))
w x

Vxr

2r0

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 1 20 / 43

Tapered wheels
Lateral drift causes a difference in the longitudinal
velocity of the wheels in the same way as before:
dy
θ≈ dx Vxl = (r0 + ψy )ω
Vxl Vxr = (r0 − ψy )ω

The longitudinal velocity of the center of gravity is

(x(t), y (t)) now given by:
w

Vxl + Vxr
ẋ = = r0 ω
2
dy
The approximation dx ≈ θ gives the lateral velocity:
Vxr

dy dx
ẏ = = θr0 ω
dx dt
Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 1 21 / 43
Tapered wheels

dy
θ≈ dx Using Vxl = (r0 + ψy )ω and Vxr = (r0 − ψy )ω the
Vxl
angular velocity can be written as
Vxr − Vxl 2ψy ω
θ̇ = =−
w w

(x(t), y (t)) Differentiating ẏ = θr0 ω and using the expression

w
for the angular velocity above, the following
differential equation for y is obtained:

2r0 ψω 2
ÿ + y =0
Vxr
w

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 1 22 / 43

Tapered wheels: Harmonic oscillation

For a wheelset with positive taper angle (as in the figure) the solution

2r0 ψω 2
ÿ (t) + y (t) = 0
w
is a harmonic oscillation

y (t) = cos(ωn t + φ)

with natural frequency r

2r0 ψ
ωn =ω
w
If there is friction in the system, then the wheelset will return to the basic
motion asymptotically.

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 1 23 / 43

Tapered wheels: Unstable system

For a wheelset with negative taper angle the solutions of the differential
equation
2r0 ψω 2
ÿ (t) + y (t) = 0
w
are r !
2r0 ψ
y (t) = C exp ± ω
w
which means that the a small perturbation would cause an exponential
growth of the lateral displacement and the system is clearly unstable.

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 1 24 / 43

Tapered wheels: Spatial coordinates

The dynamic equation

dy
θ≈ dx 2r0 ψω 2
ÿ (t) + y (t) = 0
Vxl w
can be rewritten by using the relations

d 2y 2 ẋ 2
ÿ = ẋ , ω2 =
w
(x(t), y (t)) dx 2 r02

and the result is the following:

2ψ
y 00 (x) + y (x) = 0
wr0
Vxr

A model that doesn’t depend on speed.

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Tire

Figure 1.1: Tire construction

Figure 1.2: Coordinates, forces, and moments.

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Rolling resistance

The rolling resistance of tires is primarily caused by the hysteresis in tire

materials due to the deflection of the carcass while rolling.
Other less important contributors to the rolling resistance are:

Friction between the tire and the road caused by sliding

Air circulating inside the tire

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Hysteresis

Exampel of a hysteresis loop caused by friction:

Direction of motion

F F

Ffriction

Direction of motion

F Ffriction
Displacement

d
−Ffriction
Ffriction
The energy loss due to hysteresis is equal to the shaded in the figure:

2 · d · Ffriction

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 1 28 / 43

Rolling resistance: Hysteresis

The center of normal pressure is shifted in the direction of motion due to

the hysteresis
Normal pressure

Fz
Deformation

Fr
The applied wheel torque on free-rolling tire is zero. Therefore, a
horizontal force Rr at the contact patch must exists to maintain
equilibrium. This force is called known as the rolling resistance.

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Rolling resistance

The coefficient of rolling resistance fr is defined as the ratio of the rolling

resistance Rr to the normal load W , i.e., fr = Rr /W .
Empirical formulas for calculating the rolling resistance coefficient as a
function of speed V , based on experimental data:
Radial-ply passenger car tire: fr = 0.0136 + 0.40 × 10−7 V 2
Radial-ply truck tire: fr = 0.006 + 0.23 × 10−6 V 2

Other factors that affect the rolling resistance:

Surface texture, Figure 1.5.
Inflation pressure, Figure 1.7 and 1.8.
Internal temperature, Figur 1.11 and 1.12.

Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 1 30 / 43

A Tire Under the Action of a Driving Torque

Definitions:
Rolling radius of a free-rolling tire: r = V /ω,
Effective rolling radius under the action of a driving torque: re = V /ω,
where V is the linear speed of the tire center, and ω is the angular speed.
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A Tire Under the Action of a Driving Torque

Longitudinal slip
   
V re
i = 1− × 100% = 1 − × 100%
ωr r

Limit cases:
Free-rolling tire: i = 0
The tire is not moving: i = 100% om V = 0,

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Driving Wheel: The Brush Model

The brush model is a very simple physical model of tire. The tread of the
tire is modeled as elastic bristles attached to the rim, and longitudinal
force is generated by the deflection of the brush elements.

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Driving Wheel: The Brush Model

The contact patch is assumed to rectangular and can be divided into an

adhesion region (0 ≤ x ≤ lc ) and a sliding region (lc ≤ x ≤ lt ).

lc

lt

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Driving Wheel: The Brush Model
The objective is to find the length of the adhesion region lc . When does
the longitudinal force becomes so large that the bristles begins to slide?
Consider a bristle in the adhesion region
x
ωr − V

e = x

The velocity at the rim is ωr − V . The time since the bristle first touch
the ground is t = x/(ωr ). The deflection at the distance x is:
 
x V
e(x) = (ωr − V ) = 1− x = ix
ωr ωr

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Driving Wheel: The Brush Model
User a linear model for the relation between deflection and longitudinal
force per unit of length:
dFx
= kt e = kt ix
dx
It is assumed that normal force W is uniformly distributed in the contact
region,
dFz W
=
dx lt
where lt is the length of the contact region.
Assumption: The bristle will not slide if
dFx dFz
< µp
dx dx
where µp is the coefficient of friction.
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Driving Wheel: The Brush Model

The condition can be written

W
kt ix < µp
lt
First case: When is there no sliding region?
Answer: When x = lt fulfills the condition above, i.e.
µp W µp W
kt lt i < or i< ≡ ic
lt kt lt2

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Driving Wheel: The Brush Model
The distribution of the longitudinal force in this case (i < ic )
dFx
dx

µp W
lt

k t lt i

x
lt

1
Fx = Area of the shaded region = kt lt2 i ≡ Ci i
2
µp W
In the limit case i = ic = k l 2 is
t t

1 µp W µp W
Fx = kt lt2 2
= ≡ Fxc
2 kt lt 2
Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 1 38 / 43
Driving Wheel: The Brush Model

The second case: There is a sliding region (i > ic ).

The distribution of the longitudinal force in this case:
dFx
dx

µp W
lt

x
lc lt
How do we calculate the length of the adhesion region lc ?

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Driving Wheel: The Brush Model
Solution: Recall that the bristle will not slide if kt ix < µp W /lt , i.e.,
µp W
x≤ ≡ lc
kt lt i
dFx
dx

µp W
lt

x
lc lt
The longitudinal force is equal to the shaded area
 
1 µp W µp W 1 lc
Fx = lc + (lt − lc ) = µp W 1 −
2 lt lt 2 lt
Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 1 40 / 43
The Brush Model: Summary
Critical values if longitudinal slip and force:
µp W µp W µp W
ic = 2
= och Fxc = = Ci ic
kt lt 2Ci 2

There is no sliding region when i ≤ ic eller Fx ≤ Fxc and in this case

kt lt2
Fx = i = Ci i
2

If i > ic eller Fx > Fxc , then the length of the adhesion region is
µp W
lc =
kt lt i
and the longitudinal force is
   
1 lc µp W
F x = µp W 1 − = µp W 1 −
2 lt 4Ci i
Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 1 41 / 43
Braking Wheel: The Brush Model
The skid is defined
   
ωr r
is = 1− × 100% = 1− × 100%
V re
when a braking torque is applied to the wheel.
Limit cases:
Free-rolling tire: is = 0
Locked wheel: is = 100%
Relations between i and is :
is
i =−
1 − is
and
i
is = −
1−i
Jan Åslund (Linköping University) Vehicle Dynamics and Control Lecture 1 42 / 43
Braking Wheel: Summary

∂Fx
Cs =
∂is is =0
Critical values of skid and longitudinal force
µp W
isc =
2Cs + µp W
Cs isc µp W
Fxc = =
1 − isc 2
No slide region (is < isc ):
Cs is
Fx =
1 − is
With slide region (is ≥ isc ):
 
µp W (1 − is )
Fx = µ p W 1 −
4Cs is
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