Fluid Mechanics

Lecture Notes

These modified lecture notes are prepared by Niklas Andersson, Chalmers University of Technology, Sweden
- Differential Relations for Fluid Flow
Overview
The Pi nondi-
theorem mensional
rotation equations

stream
function
modeling
and
Dimen- similarity
sional Re
conser-
Differential Analysis
vation d
relations Relations
p

Bernoulli
Flow
Relations
Integral
conser- Relations
vation
relations
hydrostatic
forces
Reynolds buoyancy
Learning Outcomes

4 Be able to categorize a flow and have knowledge about how to select

applicable methods for the analysis of a specific flow based on category

14 Derive the continuity, momentum and energy equations on differential form

36 Define and explain vorticity

let’s push the control volume approach to the limit ...

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Roadmap - Differential Relations Rotation and vorticity

Differential relations

Boundary conditions Streamfunction

Conservation of energy

Angular momentum

Conservation of linear momentum

Conservation of mass

The substantial derivative Integral relations

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Differential Relations

seeking the point-by-point details of a flow pattern

by analyzing an infinitesimal region of the flow

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Differential Relations

I Apply the four basic conservation laws to an infinitesimally small control volume

I The differential relations are in general very difficult to solve

I analytical solutions exists for a few cases

I The differential relations form the basis for CFD software

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High-Speed Nozzle Flow

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The Acoustic Signature of a Supersonic Jet

Screeching rectangular supersonic jet

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Roadmap - Differential Relations Rotation and vorticity

Differential relations

Boundary conditions Streamfunction

Conservation of energy

Angular momentum

Conservation of linear momentum

Conservation of mass

The substantial derivative Integral relations

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Frame of Reference

Eulerian: observer fixed in space

Lagrangian: observer follows a fluid particle

recall the speedometer/traffic-camera analogy

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Acceleration Field

In order to get to Newton’s second law, we need the acceleration vector

Velocity field:

V(r, t) = ex u(x, y, z, t) + ey v(x, y, z, t) + ez w(x, y, z, t)

Acceleration field:

dV du dv dw
a= = ex + ey + ez
dt dt dt dt

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Acceleration Field

Each scalar component of the velocity vector (u, v, w) is a function of four variables
(x, y, z, t) and thus

du(x, y, z, t) ∂u ∂u dx ∂u dy ∂u dz
= + + +
dt ∂t ∂x dt ∂y dt ∂z dt

By definition dx/dt = u, dy/dt = v, and dz/dt = w

du(x, y, z, t) ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u
= +u +v +w = + (V · ∇)u
dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t

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Acceleration Field

∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u
ax = +u +v +w = + (V · ∇)u
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v
ay = +u +v +w = + (V · ∇)v
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
∂w ∂w ∂w ∂w ∂w
az = +u +v +w = + (V · ∇)w
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t

 
∂V ∂V ∂V ∂V ∂V DV
a= + u +v +w = + (V · ∇)V =
∂t
|{z} | ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t Dt
{z }
local convective

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Acceleration Field

 
∂V ∂V ∂V ∂V ∂V DV
a= + u +v +w = + (V · ∇)V =
∂t
|{z} ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t Dt
| {z }
local convective

local acceleration: only in unsteady flows

convective acceleration: fluid particle that moves through

regions of spatially varying velocity
I nozzle flow
I diffuser flow

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Substantial derivative

I The total temporal derivative

I the sum of the local derivative and the convective derivative
I often referred to as the substantial derivative

I The substantial derivative follows a fluid particle but is expressed in an Eulerian

frame of reference

The substantial derivative is an operator that can be applied to any variable

Dp ∂p ∂p ∂p ∂p ∂p
= +u +v +w = + (V · ∇)p
Dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t

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Roadmap - Differential Relations Rotation and vorticity

Differential relations

Boundary conditions Streamfunction

Conservation of energy

Angular momentum

Conservation of linear momentum

Conservation of mass


The substantial derivative Integral relations

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Mass Conservation y

dz

∂
 
ρudydz ρu + (ρu)dx dydz
dy ∂x

ˆ x
∂ρ X X
dV + (ρi Ai Vi )out − (ρi Ai Vi )in = 0
CV ∂t z dx
i i

ˆ
∂ρ ∂ρ
dV ≈ dxdydz
CV ∂t ∂t

∂ρ ∂ ∂ ∂
dxdydz + (ρu)dxdydz + (ρv)dxdydz + (ρw)dxdydz = 0
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z

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Mass Conservation

The result is the continuity equation - conservation of mass for an infinitesimal control
volume

∂ρ ∂ ∂ ∂
+ (ρu) + (ρv) + (ρw) = 0
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z

or in more compact form using vector notation

∂ρ
+ ∇ · (ρV) = 0
∂t
Incompressible flow (constant density)

∂u ∂v ∂w
+ + =∇·V=0
∂x ∂y ∂z
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Roadmap - Differential Relations Rotation and vorticity

Differential relations

Boundary conditions Streamfunction

Conservation of energy

Angular momentum

Conservation of linear momentum


Conservation of mass


The substantial derivative Integral relations

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Linear Momentum

ˆ
∂
F= (ṁi Vi )out − (ṁi Vi )in
X X X
(Vρ)dV +
CV ∂t

∂ ∂
(Vρ)dV ≈ (Vρ)dxdydz
∂t ∂t

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Linear Momentum y

dz

∂
 
ρuVdydz ρuV + (ρuV)dx dydz
dy ∂x
x

z dx

Face Inlet momentum flux Outlet momentum flux

 
∂
x ρuVdydz ρuV + (ρuV)dx dydz
∂x
 
∂
y ρvVdxdz ρvV + (ρvV)dy dxdz
∂y
 
∂
z ρwVdxdy ρwV + (ρwV)dz dxdy
∂z

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Linear Momentum

 
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
F=
X
(Vρ) + (ρuV) + (ρvV) + (ρwV) dxdydz
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z

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Linear Momentum

∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
(Vρ) + (ρuV) + (ρvV) + (ρwV)
|∂t {z } |∂x {z } ∂y
| {z }
∂z {z }
|
V ∂ρ
∂t
+ρ ∂V
∂t
V ∂x
∂
(ρu)+ρu ∂V
∂x V ∂y
∂
(ρv)+ρv ∂V V ∂z
∂
(ρw)+ρw ∂V
∂z
∂y

can be rewritten as
   
∂ρ ∂V ∂V ∂V ∂V
V + ∇ · (ρV) +ρ +u +v +w
∂t ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
| {z } | {z }
continuity equation ∂V
+(V·∇)V= DV
∂t Dt

and thus

DV
F=ρ
X
dxdydz
Dt
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Linear Momentum - Forces

DV
F=ρ
X
dxdydz
Dt

F:
X

body forces: gravity and other field forces

surface forces: pressure and viscous stresses

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Linear Momentum - Gravity Force

dFgravity = ρgdxdydz

if gravity is aligned with the negative z-direction

dFgravity = −ez ρgdxdydz

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Linear Momentum - Surface Forces

σyy

σyx
dz σyz
σxy
σzx

−p + τxx τyx τzx

σxz σxx
σij = τxy −p + τyy τzy σzy
dy
τxz τyz −p + τzz σzz
x

dx
z

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Linear Momentum - Surface Forces
σzx dxdy ∂σyx
 
y σyx + dy dxdz
∂y

dz

∂σxx
 
σxx dydz σxx + dx dydz
∂x
dy

z dx

σyz dxdz 
∂σzx

σzx + dz dxdy
∂z
 
∂ ∂ ∂
dFx,surf = (σxx ) + (σyx ) + (σzx ) dxdydz
∂x ∂y ∂z

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Linear Momentum - Surface Forces

 
∂ ∂ ∂
dFx,surf = (σxx ) + (σyx ) + (σzx ) dxdydz
∂x ∂y ∂z

σxx = τxx − p, σyx = τyx , σzx = τzx

 
∂p ∂ ∂ ∂
dFx,surf = − + (τxx ) + (τyx ) + (τzx ) dxdydz
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂z

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Linear Momentum - Surface Forces

 
∂p ∂ ∂ ∂
dFx,surf = − + (τxx ) + (τyx ) + (τzx ) dxdydz
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂z
 
∂p ∂ ∂ ∂
dFy,surf = − + (τxy ) + (τyy ) + (τzy ) dxdydz
∂y ∂x ∂y ∂z
 
∂p ∂ ∂ ∂
dFz,surf = − + (τxz ) + (τyz ) + (τzz ) dxdydz
∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z

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Linear Momentum - Surface Forces

 
dF = −∇p + ∇ · τij dxdydz
where

τxx τyx τzx

τij = τxy τyy τzy
τxz τyz τzz

is the viscous stress tensor

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Linear Momentum - Forces

Now, inserting the forces into the momentum equation gives

DV
ρg − ∇p + ∇ · τij = ρ
Dt

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Linear Momentum

vector notation is powerfull, tensor notation is even better ...

 
∂p ∂τxx ∂τyx ∂τzx ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u
ρgx − + + + = ρ +u +v +w
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
 
∂p ∂τxy ∂τyy ∂τzy ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v
ρgy − + + + = ρ +u +v +w
∂y ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
 
∂p ∂τxz ∂τyz ∂τzz ∂w ∂w ∂w ∂w
ρgz − + + + = ρ +u +v +w
∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z

Note: the convective term (RHS) is nonlinear

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Linear Momentum

Recall:
”For a Newonian fluid, the viscous stresses are proportional to the element
strain and the viscosity”

For incompressible flow:

∂u ∂v ∂w
τxx = 2µ , τyy = 2µ , τzz = 2µ
∂x ∂y ∂z
   
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂w
τxy = τyx =µ + , τxz = τzx = µ +
∂y ∂x ∂z ∂x
 
∂v ∂w
τyz = τzy = µ +
∂z ∂y

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Linear Momentum

The incompressible Navier-Stokes equations

∂2u ∂2u ∂2u

 
Du ∂p
ρ = ρgx − +µ + 2+ 2
Dt ∂x ∂x 2 ∂x ∂z

∂2v ∂2v ∂2v

 
Dv ∂p
ρ = ρgy − +µ + + 2
Dt ∂y ∂x 2 ∂x 2 ∂z

∂2w ∂2w ∂2w

 
Dw ∂p
ρ = ρgz − +µ + +
Dt ∂z ∂x 2 ∂x 2 ∂z 2

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Linear Momentum

The incompressible Navier-Stokes equations

I Non-linear equations
I Three equations and four unknowns (p, u, v, w)
I Combined with the continuity equations we have four equations and four
unknowns

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Example - Coutette Flow V

y =h

u(y)

y = −h

fixed wall
I incompressible (ρ = const)
I steady-state
I lower plate fixed, upper plate moving with the velocity V
I flow only in the x-direction v = w = 0, u 6= 0
I no pressure gradient

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Example - Coutette Flow

continuity:

∂u ∂v ∂w ∂u
+ + = 0 ⇒ {v = w = 0} ⇒ =0
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x

momentum equation (x-direction):

 2
∂ u ∂2u ∂2u
  
∂u ∂u ∂p ∂p
ρ u +v = − +ρgx +µ 2
+ 2 ⇒ {v = w = 0, = 0} ⇒ µ 2 = 0
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y

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Example - Coutette Flow

∂2u
= 0 ⇒ u = ay + b
∂y 2
boundary conditions:

u(h) = V
⇒
u(−h) = 0

V = ah + b V = ah + b
+ 0 = −ah + b − 0 = −ah + b
V = 2b V = 2ah

V V
b= a=
2 2h
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Example - Coutette Flow V

y =h

u(y)

y = −h

fixed wall

V y 
u= +1
2 h

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Example - Poiseuille Flow
fixed wall

y =h

umax
x

u(y)

y = −h

fixed wall

I incompressible (ρ = const)
I steady-state
I lower and upper plate fixed
I flow only in the x-direction v = w = 0, u 6= 0
I pressure gradient driven

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Example - Poiseuille Flow

continuity:

∂u ∂v ∂w ∂u
+ + = 0 ⇒ {v = w = 0} ⇒ =0
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x

momentum equation (x-direction):

∂2u ∂2u ∂2u

   
∂u ∂u ∂p ∂p
ρ u +v =− + ρgx + µ + 2 ⇒ {v = w = 0} ⇒ µ =
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂x 2 ∂y ∂y 2 ∂x

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Example - Poiseuille Flow

momentum equation (y-direction and z-direction):

∂p

=0 

∂y 

⇒ p = p(x)
∂p


=0 

∂z

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Example - Poiseuille Flow

d2u dp
µ 2
= = const < 0
dy dx

I Why constant?
I RHS function of x only
I LHS function of y only
I RHS=LHS ⇒ must be a constant
I Why < 0?
I pressure must decrease in the flow direction

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Example - Poiseuille Flow

d2u dp
µ 2
= = const < 0
dy dx

1 dp 2
u= y + ay + b
2µ dx

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Example - Poiseuille Flow

boundary conditions:

u(h) = 0
⇒
u(−h) = 0

1 dp 2 1 dp 2
0 = h + ah + b 0 = h + ah + b
2µ dx 2µ dx
1 dp 2 1 dp 2
+ 0 = h − ah + b − 0 = h − ah + b
2µ dx 2µ dx
1 dp 2 0 = 2ah
0 = h + 2b
µ dx
a=0
1 dp 2
b=− h
2µ dx
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Example - Poiseuille Flow
fixed wall

y =h

umax
x

u(y)

y = −h

fixed wall

h2 dp
  y 2 
u=− 1−
2µ dx h

du dp y du dp h2
= ⇒ = 0 ⇒ umax = u(0) = −
dy dx µ dy y=0 dx 2µ

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Roadmap - Differential Relations Rotation and vorticity

Differential relations

Boundary conditions Streamfunction

Conservation of energy

Angular momentum


Conservation of linear momentum


Conservation of mass


The substantial derivative Integral relations

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Angular Momentum

ˆ  ˆ
d
Mo = ρ(r × V)dV (r × V)ρ(V · n)dA
X
+
dt CV CS

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Angular Momentum ∂
τyx + (τyx )dy
∂y

θ
I axis through o parallel to the z-axis
∂
I axis through the centroid of the element
τxy dy +O τxy +
∂x
(τxy )dx

I θ angle of rotation about o

dx

τyx

 
1 ∂ 1 ∂
τxy − τyx + (τxy )dx − (τyx )dy dxdydz =
2 ∂x 2 ∂y

1 d2θ
ρ(dxdydz)(dx 2 + dy 2 ) 2
12 dt

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Angular Momentum

 
1 ∂ 1 ∂
τxy − τyx + (τxy )dx − (τyx )dy dxdydz =
2 ∂x 2 ∂y

1 d2θ
ρ(dxdydz)(dx 2 + dy 2 ) 2
12 dt

Neglect higher-order differential terms gives

τxy ≈ τyx

Analogously, we may obtain τxz ≈ τzx and τzy ≈ τyz

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Angular Momentum

Note: there is no differential angular momentum equation ...

the only result from this section is that shear stresses are symmetric: τij = τji

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Roadmap - Differential Relations Rotation and vorticity

Differential relations

Boundary conditions Streamfunction

Conservation of energy


Angular momentum


Conservation of linear momentum


Conservation of mass


The substantial derivative Integral relations

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The Energy Equation

Integral formulation:
ˆ  ˆ  
d p
Q̇ − Ẇs − Ẇν = eρdV + e+ ρ(V · n)dA
dt CV CS ρ

h = e + p/ρ
Differential form:
 
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
Q̇ − Ẇν = (ρe) + (ρuh) + (ρvh) + (ρwh) dxdydz
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
Ẇs = 0 we can not have a infinitesimal shaft protruding the control volume

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The Energy Equation

 
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ 
Q̇ − Ẇν = 
 ∂t (ρe) + ∂x (ρuh) + ∂y (ρvh) + ∂z (ρwh) dxdydz

| {z } | {z }
I II

Part I.

∂ ∂ρ ∂e
(ρe) = e +ρ
∂t ∂t ∂t

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The Energy Equation

Part II.

∂ ∂ ∂
(ρuh) + (ρvh) + (ρwh) =
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
(ρue) + (ρve) + (ρwe) + (up) + (vp) + (wp)
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
| {z } | {z }
∗ ∗∗

Part II*

∂ ∂ ∂
(ρue) + (ρve) + (ρwe) =
∂x ∂y ∂z
   
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂e ∂e ∂e
e (ρu) + (ρv) + (ρw) + ρ u +v +w
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
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The Energy Equation

Part II**

∂ ∂ ∂
(up) + (vp) + (wp) =
∂x ∂y ∂z

 
∂u ∂v ∂w ∂p ∂p ∂p
p + + +u +v +w =
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z

p∇ · V + V · ∇p

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The Energy Equation

reassemble and collect terms:

∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
(ρe) + (ρuh) + (ρvh) + (ρwh) =
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
 
∂e ∂e ∂e ∂e
ρ +u +v +w +
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
| {z }
∂e
∂t
+(V·∇)e= De
Dt

 
∂ρ ∂ ∂ ∂
e + (ρu) + (ρv) + (ρw) +
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
| {z }
continuity equation

p∇ · V + V · ∇p

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The Energy Equation

 
De
Q̇ − Ẇν = ρ + p∇ · V + V · ∇p dxdydz
Dt

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The Energy Equation - Added Heat

Now, let’s have a look at the added heat term Q̇

I Only conduction will be considered (no radiation)

I According the Fourier’s law of conduction, the heat flux is proportional to the
temperature gradient

q = −k∇T

where k is the thermal conductivity and q is heat transfer per unit area

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The Energy Equation - Added Heat y

dz

∂
 
qx dydz qx + (qx )dx dydz
dy ∂x
x

dx
Face Inlet heat flux Outlet heat flux z

 
∂qx ∂T
x qx dydz qx + dx dydz where qx = −k
∂x ∂x
 
∂qy ∂T
y qy dxdz qy + dy dxdz where qy = −k
∂y ∂y
 
∂qz ∂T
z qz dxdy qz + dz dxdy where qz = −k
∂z ∂z

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The Energy Equation - Added Heat

net added heat:

 
∂qx ∂qy ∂qz
Q̇ = − + + dxdydz = −∇ · qdxdydz
∂x ∂y ∂z

or

Q̇ = ∇ · (k∇T )dxdydz

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The Energy Equation - Viscous Work

The rate of work done by viscous stresses equals the product of the stress

component, its corresponding velocity component and surface area

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The Energy Equation - Viscous Work y


wx = − uτxx + vτxy + wτxz

dz

∂
 
wx dydz wx + (wx )dx dydz
dy ∂x

 z dx
∂
Ẇν = − (uτxx + vτxy + wτxz ) +
∂x

∂ ∂
(uτyx + vτyy + wτyz ) + (uτzx + vτzy + wτzz ) =
∂y ∂z

−∇ · (V · τij )dxdydz

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The Energy Equation

with the derived expressions for heat and viscous work we end up with

De
∇ · (k∇T ) + ∇ · (V · τij ) = ρ + p∇ · V + V · ∇p
Dt

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The Energy Equation

Now, introducing the viscous-dissipation function φ for Newtonian fluids and

incompressible flows

∇ · (V · τij ) = V · (∇ · τij ) + φ
where
"  
∂u 2
 2
∂w 2
 
∂v
φ=µ 2 +2 +2 +
∂x ∂y ∂z

 2  2  2 #
∂v ∂u ∂w ∂v ∂u ∂w
+ + + + +
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x

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The Energy Equation

Note:

”All terms in the viscous-dissipation function are quadratic which means

that in a viscous flow there will always be losses, which is in line with the
second law of thermodynamics”

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The Energy Equation

Now, let’s eliminate the term V · (∇ · τij ) in the energy equation:

Momentum equation:

DV
ρ = ρg − ∇p + ∇ · τij
Dt

Multiply the momentum equation with the velocity vector (scalar product)

DV
V · (∇ · τij ) = ρV · − ρV · g − V · ∇p
Dt

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The Energy Equation

Energy equation:

De
ρ + V · ∇p + p∇ · V = ∇ · (k∇T ) + V · (∇ · τij ) + φ
Dt

eliminate V · (∇ · τij ) using the result from previous slide

De DV
ρ + V · ∇p + p∇ · V = ∇ · (k∇T ) + ρV · − ρV · g + V · ∇p + φ
Dt Dt

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The Energy Equation

Finally, write out energy per unit mass (e)

1
e = û + V 2 + gz
2
Apply the substantial derivative to e

 
De Dû 1 D D Dû DV ∂
= + (V · V)− (gx) = +V· − (gx) + (V · ∇)(gx)
Dt Dt 2 Dt Dt Dt Dt ∂t
| {z }
D
Dt
(gx)=V·g

De Dû DV
= +V· −V · g
Dt Dt Dt

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The Energy Equation

Now, insert

De Dû DV
= +V· −V·g
Dt Dt Dt
in the energy equation

Dû DV
ρ + ρV · − ρV · g + V · ∇p + p∇ · V =
Dt Dt
DV
∇ · (k∇T ) + ρV · − ρV · g + V · ∇p + φ
Dt

The highlighted terms cancel each other

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The Energy Equation

Dû
ρ + p∇ · V = ∇ · (k∇T ) + φ
Dt

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Roadmap - Differential Relations Rotation and vorticity

Differential relations

Boundary conditions Streamfunction


Conservation of energy


Angular momentum


Conservation of linear momentum


Conservation of mass


The substantial derivative Integral relations

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Flow Equations on Differential Form

∂ρ
Continuity: + ∇ · (ρV) = 0
∂t
DV
Momentum: ρ = ρg − ∇p + ∇ · τij
Dt

Dû
Energy: ρ + p∇ · V = ∇ · (k∇T ) + φ
Dt

five equations and seven unknowns (ρ, u, v, w, p, û, T ) ⇒ two additional relations
needed:

ρ = ρ(p, T ), û = û(p, T )

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Flow Equations on Differential Form

Boundary conditions:
I solid wall: no slip, no temperature jump
I inlet, outlet
I liquid-gas interface

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Roadmap - Differential Relations Rotation and vorticity


Differential relations


Boundary conditions Streamfunction


Conservation of energy


Angular momentum


Conservation of linear momentum


Conservation of mass


The substantial derivative Integral relations

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The Streamfunction

fullfil the continuity equation and solve the momentum equation directly for
the single variable ψ

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The Streamfunction
incompressible, two-dimensional flow

∂u ∂v
+ =0
∂x ∂y
define ψ(x, y) such that
   
∂ ∂ψ ∂ ∂ψ
+ − =0
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
and thus

∂ψ ∂ψ
u= , v=−
∂y ∂x
or
 
∂ψ ∂ψ
V= ,−
∂y ∂x
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The Streamfunction (for the interested)

The rotation of the flow field is calculated using the curl operator

curl(V) = ∇ × V = −∇2 ψez

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The Streamfunction (for the interested)

Now, apply the curl operator to the momentum equation

DV 1
∇× = ∇ × g − ∇ × ∇p +ν∇ × ∇2 V = ν∇ × ∇2 V
Dt | {z } ρ | {z }
=0 =0

∂V
∇× + ∇ × (V · ∇)V = ν∇ × ∇2 V
∂t
∂V

= 0 (steady) 

∂t ⇒ ∇ × (V · ∇)V = ν∇2 (∇ × V)
ν∇ × ∇2 V = ν∇2 (∇ × V)



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The Streamfunction (for the interested)

V2
 
1
(V · ∇)V = ∇(V · V) − V × (∇ × V) = ∇ − V × (∇ × V)
2 2
and thus

V2
 
∇ × (V · ∇)V = ∇ × ∇ −∇ × V × (∇ × V) = ∇ × (∇ × V) × V
2
| {z }
=0

∇ × (∇ × V) × V =

(V · ∇)(∇ × V) − ((∇ × V) · ∇)V + (∇ × V)(∇ · V) +V (∇ · (∇ × V)) =

| {z } | {z }
=0 (incompressible) =0
(V · ∇)(∇ × V) − ((∇ × V) · ∇)V
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The Streamfunction (for the interested)

(V · ∇)(∇ × V) − ((∇ × V) · ∇)V = ν∇2 (∇ × V)

insert the streamfunction

∂ψ ∂ψ ∂ ∂ ∂
(V · ∇)(∇ × V) = ( , − , 0) · ( , , )(0, 0, −∇2 ψ)
∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂z

∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ψ ∂ψ
((∇ × V) · ∇)V = (0, 0, −∇2 ψ) · ( , , )( , − , 0) = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂y ∂x

∂ψ ∂ ∂ψ ∂
(∇2 ψ) − (∇2 ψ) = ν∇2 (∇2 ψ)
∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y

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Streamfunction

∂ψ ∂ ∂ψ ∂
(∇2 ψ) − (∇2 ψ) = ν∇2 (∇2 ψ)
∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y

+ one equation for ψ that fullfils both the momentum and continuity equations
+ scalar equation
- contains fourth-order derivatives

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Streamfunction

Definition of a streamline in two dimensions:

dx dy
=
u v
or

udy − vdx = 0
and thus

∂ψ ∂ψ
dx + dy = dψ = 0
∂x ∂y

or ψ is constant along a streamline ...

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Streamfunction

Implication:

I Lines of constant ψ are streamlines of the flow

I If we know ψ(x, y), lines of constant ψ will be streamlines of the flow

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Roadmap - Differential Relations Rotation and vorticity


Differential relations


Boundary conditions

Streamfunction


Conservation of energy


Angular momentum


Conservation of linear momentum


Conservation of mass


The substantial derivative Integral relations

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Flow Rotation

b b

u(y) θ θ
a a a a
t = t1 b t = t2
b

I Is the Couette flow irrotational?

I Note the change of the fluid element bisector angle θ

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Flow Rotation

π
or

β= + θB − θ A
ect

2
bis

θ β π 1
θB
θ= + θA = + (θA + θB )
2 4 2
β
ent
elem
fluid θA the angular velocity of the bisector:
x

1 
θ̇ = θ̇A + θ̇B
2

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Flow Rotation
y

∆x2
u∆t
∂v


∆y1 v+ ∂x ∆x ∆t − v∆t ∂v
sin(∆θA ) = ≈ = ∆t 0
∆x ∆x ∂x 2
∆θB
2
sin(∆θA ) ≈ ∆θA for small angles

∆y
v

∆y
∆θA ∂v ∆x
∆θA 10
⇒ = ∆y1

|∆t
{z } ∂x
0
0
v∆t
x
=θ̇A 0 ∆x 1
u
∂u
in the same way θ̇B ≈ −
∂y
 
1  1 ∂v ∂u
the angular velocity of the bisector: θ̇ = θ̇A + θ̇B = −
2 2 ∂x ∂y
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Flow Rotation

From previous slide we get the angular velocity about the z axis
 
1 ∂v ∂u
ωz = −
2 ∂x ∂y

Using the same reasoning, we can get the angular velocities about the x and y axes

 
1 ∂w ∂v
ωx = −
2 ∂y ∂z
 
1 ∂u ∂w
ωy = −
2 ∂z ∂x

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Flow Rotation

ex ey ez
1 ∂ ∂ ∂ 1
ω= = curl(V)
2 ∂x ∂y ∂z 2
u v w

The flow vorticity ζ is defined as:

ζ = 2ω = curl(V)

Flows with zero vorticity are called irrotational

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Frictionless Irrotational Flow
If the flow is both frictionless and irrotational:

1. the momentum equation reduces to Euler’s equation

DV
ρ = ρg − ∇p
Dt

2. the acceleration term can be simplified

DV ∂V
= + (V · ∇)V
Dt ∂t

where we can use the vector identity

1
(V · ∇)V = ∇( V 2 ) + ζ × V
2
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Frictionless Flow

1. combine Euler’s equation with the modified acceleration term

2. divide by ρ
3. dot product between the entire equation and an arbitrary displacement vector dr
 
∂V 1 2 1
+ ∇( V ) + ζ × V + ∇p − g · dr = 0
∂t 2 ρ

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Frictionless Flow

Now we want to get rid of the term (ζ × V) · dr

1. V = 0; no flow - not interesting
2. ζ = 0; irrotational flow
3. dr perpendicular to (ζ × V); strange
4. dr parallel to V; integrate along a streamline

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Frictionless Flow

Fourth alternative: integrate along a streamline:

 
∂V 1 2 1
+ ∇( V ) + ∇p − g · dr = 0
∂t 2 ρ

performing the scalar products gives

−g · dr = {g = −gez } = gdz

∂p ∂p ∂p
∇p · dr = dx + dy + dz = dp
∂x ∂y ∂z

1 ∂V 2 ∂V 2 ∂V 2
 
1 2 1
dz = d V 2


∇( V ) · dr = dx + dy +
2 2 ∂x ∂y ∂z 2
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Frictionless Flow

∂V 1
dp
· dr + d V 2 + + gdz = 0
∂t 2 ρ

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Frictionless Flow

Integrate between any two points along the streamline

ˆ 2 ˆ 2
∂V dp 1 2
ds + + (V2 − V12 ) + g(z2 − z1 ) = 0
1 ∂t 1 ρ 2

The Bernoulli equation frictionless unsteady flow

Steady incompressible flow gives

p 1 2
+ V + gz = constant
ρ 2
Note: for irrotational flow this last results holds in the entire flow field with
the same constant
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Roadmap - Differential Relations

Rotation and vorticity


Differential relations


Boundary conditions

Streamfunction


Conservation of energy


Angular momentum


Conservation of linear momentum


Conservation of mass


The substantial derivative Integral relations

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