Fluid Mechanics

Lecture Notes

These modified lecture notes are prepared by Niklas Andersson, Chalmers University of Technology, Sweden
 The Pi

Overview
nondi-
theorem mensional
rotation equations

stream
function
modeling
and
Dimen- similarity
Reynolds
sional stresses
conser-
Reynolds
Differential Analysis
vation decom-
relations Relations
position

Turbulence
viscosity
Bernoulli
Flow
Turbulence
Relations
Integral
conser- Relations
vation
relations
hydrostatic Turbulence
forces
Reynolds buoyancy Modeling
transport
theorem

Fluid Dynamics flow

regimes
laminar
velocity Pressure flow
field

Reynolds turbulent
number Duct Flow flow

Fluid Flow
Basic
Fluid Flow friction
flow Concepts and losses
regimes

Reynolds
number
pressure,
density,
and tem- External
perature Thermo- shock- Com- Flow
dynamics Fluid expansion
pressible
theory boundary
Flow layer

state viscosity
relations
nozzle
entropy speed of separation turbulence
flow
speed of sound
sound fluid continuum
concept normal
shocks
Overview Fluid Dynamic
velocity Pressure
field

Reynolds
number

Fluid Flow
Basic
flow Concepts
regimes

pressure,
density,
and tem-
perature Thermo- shock-
dynamics Fluid expansion
theory

state viscosity
relations
nozzle
entropy flow
speed of
sound fluid continuum
concept
Learning Outcomes
1 Explain the difference between a fluid and a solid in terms of forces and
deformation
2 Understand and be able to explain the viscosity concept
3 Define the Reynolds number
5 Explain the difference between Lagrangian and Eulerian frame of reference and
know when to use which approach
7 Explain the concepts: streamline, pathline and streakline
8 Understand and be able to explain the concept shear stress
9 Explain how to do a force balance for fluid element (forces and pressure
gradients)
10 Understand and explain buoyancy and cavitation
16 Understand and explain the concept Newtonian fluid

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Roadmap - Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

Fluid Mechanics - Basic Concepts

Fluid Flow

Viscosity Thermodynamic properties Flow analysis

Continuum No-slip condition

Fluid concept Velocity field

Frame of reference

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Fluid Mechanics

”Fluid mechanics is the branch of physics concerned with the mechanics of

fluids (liquids, gases, and plasmas) and the forces on them. It has
applications in a wide range of disciplines, including mechanical, civil,
chemical and biomedical engineering, geophysics, oceanography,
meteorology, astrophysics, and biology.”
Wikipedia
Fluids Flows in Your Daily Life

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Fluids Flows in Your Daily Life

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Fluids Flows in Your Daily Life

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Fluids Flows in Your Daily Life

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Fluids Flows in Your Daily Life

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Fluids Flows in Your Daily Life

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Fluids Flows in Your Daily Life

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Fluids Flows in Your Daily Life

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Fluids Flows in Your Daily Life

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Fluids Flows in Your Daily Life

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Fluid Flow Applications

I Analytical solutions limited to very specific simplified cases

I Complex geometries and flows leads to the need for experiments and
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)
I Understanding the basic principles is a key factor for a correct analysis

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Roadmap - Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

Fluid Mechanics - Basic Concepts

Fluid Flow

Viscosity Thermodynamic properties Flow analysis

Continuum No-slip condition

Fluid concept Velocity field

Frame of reference

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The Concept of a Fluid

”In physics, a fluid is a substance that continually deforms (flows)

under an applied shear stress, or external force. Fluids are a phase
of matter and include liquids, gases and plasmas. They are
substances with zero shear modulus, or, in simpler terms,
substances which cannot resist any shear force applied to them.”

Wikipedia

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The Concept of a Fluid

”A solid can resist a shear

stress by a static deflection;
a fluid cannot”

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Roadmap - Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

Fluid Mechanics - Basic Concepts

Fluid Flow

Viscosity Thermodynamic properties Flow analysis

Continuum No-slip condition


Fluid concept Velocity field

Frame of reference

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The Fluid as a Continuum

I Fluid density is essentially a point function

I fluid properties can be thought of as varying continually in space
I Volume large enough such that the number of molecules within the volume is
constant
I Volume small enough not to introduce macroscopic fluctuations

ρ Microscopic uncertainty

Macroscopic uncertainty

δm
ρ= lim
δV→δV ∗ δV
Continuum
∗ −9 3 7
standard air: δV ≈ 10 mm ⇒∼ 3 × 10 molecules δV
δV → 0 δV ∗
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The Fluid as a Continuum

I Flow properties varies smoothly

I Differential calculus can be used

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Roadmap - Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

Fluid Mechanics - Basic Concepts

Fluid Flow

Viscosity Thermodynamic properties Flow analysis


Continuum No-slip condition


Fluid concept Velocity field

Frame of reference

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Frame of Reference

I Eulerian
I fluid properties as function of position and time
I most often used in fluid mechanics

I Lagrangian
I follows a system in time and space
I can be used in fluid mechanics
I most often used in solid mechanics

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Roadmap - Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

Fluid Mechanics - Basic Concepts

Fluid Flow

Viscosity Thermodynamic properties Flow analysis


Continuum No-slip condition


Fluid concept Velocity field


Frame of reference

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Properties of the Velocity Field

I The fluid velocity is a function of position and time

I Three components u, v, and w (one in each spatial direction)

V(x, y, z, t) = u(x, y, z, t)ex + v(x, y, z, t)ey + w(x, y, z, t)ez

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Properties of the Velocity Field

Acceleration:

V(x, y, z, t) = u(x, y, z, t)ex + v(x, y, z, t)ey + w(x, y, z, t)ez

        
dV ∂V ∂V ∂x ∂V ∂y ∂V ∂z
a= = + + +
dt ∂t ∂x ∂t ∂y ∂t ∂z ∂t

dV ∂V ∂V ∂V ∂V
= +u +v +w
dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z

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Roadmap - Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

Fluid Mechanics - Basic Concepts

Fluid Flow

Viscosity Thermodynamic properties Flow analysis


Continuum No-slip condition


Fluid concept

Velocity field


Frame of reference

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Thermodynamic Properties

I Thermodynamic properties describe the state of a system, i.e., a collection of

matter of fixed identity which interacts with its surroundings
I In this course, the system will be a small fluid element, and all properties will be
assumed to be continuum properties of the flow field

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Thermodynamic Properties

I Pressure p Pa
I Density ρ kg/m3 most common properties
I Temperature T K

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Thermodynamic Properties

I Pressure p Pa
I Density ρ kg/m3 most common properties
I Temperature T K

I Internal energy û
I Enthalpy h = û + p/ρ
work, heat, and energy balances
I Entropy s
I Specific heats Cp and Cv

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Thermodynamic Properties

I Pressure p Pa
I Density ρ kg/m3 most common properties
I Temperature T K

I Internal energy û
I Enthalpy h = û + p/ρ
work, heat, and energy balances
I Entropy s
I Specific heats Cp and Cv

I Viscosity µ
I Thermal conductivity k friction and heat conduction

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Thermodynamic Properties

I For a single-phase substance, two basic properties are sufficient to get the
values of all others

ρ = ρ(p, T ), h = h(p, T ), µ = µ(p, T )

I In the following it will be assumed that all thermodynamic properties exists as

point functions in a flowing fluid

I large enough number of molecules

I any changes are slower than the fluid time scale ⇒ equilibrium

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Thermodynamic Properties
Pressure: p[Pa]
I the compression stress at a point in a static fluid
I a fluid flow is often driven by pressure gradients
I if the pressure drops below the vapor pressure in a liquid, vapor bubbles will form

Temperature: T [K]
I related to internal energy
I large temperature differences ⇒ heat transfer may be important

Density: ρ[kg/m3 ]
I mass per unit volume
I nearly constant in liquids (incompressible) - for water, the density increases about
one percent for a pressure increase by a factor of 220
I not constant for gases
p
ρ=
RT
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Potential and Kinetic Energies

The total stored energy per unit mass:

1
e = û + V 2 + gz
2

I the internal energy is a function of temperature

I the potential and kinetic energies are kinematic quantities

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State Relations for Gases
The perfect gas law:

p = ρRT
where R is the gas constant
(2)
R = Cp − Cv
(1)

V = constant P = constant
m = 1kg m = 1kg
∆T = 1◦ K ∆T = 1◦ K
kJ kJ
Cv = 3.13 ◦ Cp = 5.2 ◦
kg K kg K

3.13kJ 5.2kJ
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State Relations for Gases

The ideal gas law requires: û = û(T ) and thus

specific heat (constant volume):

 
∂ û d û
Cv = = = Cv (T )
∂T ρ dT

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State Relations for Gases

specific heat (constant pressure):

p
h = û += û + RT = h(T )
ρ
 
∂h dh
Cp = = = Cp (T )
∂T p dT
ratio of specific heats:

Cp
γ= ≥1
Cv

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State Relations for Gases

R
Cv =
γ−1
γR
Cp =
γ−1

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Speed of Sound

Speed of sound plays an important role when compressible effects are important
(Chapter 9)
 
2 ∂p
a =
∂ρ s
  r
1 ∂ρ 1
τs = ⇒a=
ρ ∂p s ρτs
where τs is the fluid compressibility

for an ideal gas:

p
a= γRT

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Vapor Pressure

”the pressure at which a liquid boils and is in equilibrium with its own vapor”

Vapor pressure for water:

T [◦ C] vapor pressure [Pa]

20 2340

100 101300

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Vapor Pressure
I If the pressure in a liquid gets lower than the vapor pressure, vapor bubbles will
appear in the liquid
I If the pressure drops below the vapor pressure due to the flow itself we get
cavitation

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Roadmap - Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

Fluid Mechanics - Basic Concepts

Fluid Flow

Viscosity

Thermodynamic properties Flow analysis


Continuum No-slip condition


Fluid concept

Velocity field


Frame of reference

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Viscosity

”relates the local stresses in a moving fluid to the strain rate of the fluid
element”
”a quantitative measure of the fluid’s resistance to flow”

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Viscosity
y
δuδt
δθ
τ ∝
δt
u(y) velocity profile
u = δu

δθ δθ
δy

δx no slip at wall

δθ δuδt
τ∝ , tan δθ =
δt δy

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Viscosity

for infinitesimal changes:

dθ du
=
dt dy

δθ dθ
from before we know that τ ∝ and thus τ ∝
δt dt

For newtonian fluids:

dθ du
τ =µ =µ
dt dy

where µ is the fluid viscosity

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Viscosity

I Liquids have high viscosity that decreases with temperature

I intermolecular forces decreases with temperature

I Gases have low viscosity that increases with temperature

I increased temperature means increased molecular movement

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Viscosity

Note! there are two different viscosities in the table (dynamic viscosity µ and
kinematic viscosity ν = µ/ρ)

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Viscosity

Inviscid flows: flows where viscous forces are negligible

Viscous flows: flows where viscous forces are important

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Reynolds number

ρVL
Re =
µ

I Dimensional number that relates viscous forces to inertial forces

I Very important parameter in fluid mechanics

I V and L are characteristic velocity and length scales of the flow

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Reynolds number

Reynolds number flow description

low viscous, creeping motion (inertial forces negligible)
moderate laminar flow
high turbulent flow

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Nonnewtonian Fluids

shear stress τ
ideal Bingham plastic

dilatant
plastic

Newtonian

yield stress
pseudoplastic

0 dθ
shear strain rate
dt

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Roadmap - Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

Fluid Mechanics - Basic Concepts


Fluid Flow


Viscosity

Thermodynamic properties Flow analysis


Continuum No-slip condition


Fluid concept

Velocity field


Frame of reference

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No Slip/No Temperature Jump

”When a fluid flow is bounded by a solid surface, molecular interactions

cause the fluid in contact with the surface to seek momentum and energy
equilibrium with that surface”

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No Slip/No Temperature Jump

At a solid wall, the fluid will have the velocity and temperature of the wall

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Laminar/Turbulent Flow

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Roadmap - Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

Fluid Mechanics - Basic Concepts


Fluid Flow


Viscosity

Thermodynamic properties Flow analysis


Continuum

No-slip condition


Fluid concept

Velocity field


Frame of reference

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Flow Analysis

- Control-volume (integral) approach

- Infinitesimal system (differential) approach

- Dimensional analysis approach

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Flow Analysis

I Conservation of mass (continuity)

I Conservation of momentum (Newton’s second law)
I Conservation of energy (first law of thermodynamics)
I State relation (for example the ideal gas law)
I Second law of thermodynamics
I Boundary conditions

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Flow Visualization

Streamline
I a line that is tangent to the velocity vector everywhere at an instant in time

Pathline
I the actual path traversed by a fluid particle

Streakline
I the locus of particles that have earlier passed through a prescribed point

Timeline
I a line formed by a set of particles at a given instant

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Flow Visualization

Streamline
I a line that is tangent to the velocity vector everywhere at an instant in time

Pathline
I the actual path traversed by a fluid particle

Streakline
I the locus of particles that have earlier passed through a prescribed point

Timeline
I a line formed by a set of particles at a given instant

Note: In a steady-state flow, streamlines, pathlines and streaklines are identical

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Streamline
Tangent to flow velocity vector everywhere

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Streamtube
”Constructed” from individual streamlines
No flow across streamtube walls (by definition)

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Pathline vs Streakline

streamlines t ≤ t0
streamlines t > t0

pathline t = t0 pathline t > t0

streakline t = t0 streakline t > t0

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Roadmap - Introduction to Fluid Mechanics


Fluid Mechanics - Basic Concepts


Fluid

Flow


Viscosity

Thermodynamic properties

Flow analysis


Continuum

No-slip condition


Fluid concept

Velocity field


Frame of reference

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Example - Flow Between Plates
u=V

h u(y)

I No acceleration
I No pressure gradients
I two-dimensional flow

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Example - Flow Between Plates
 
∂τ
τ+ ∆y ∆x × 1
∂y

 
∂p
p∆y × 1 p+ ∆x ∆y × 1
∂x

τ ∆x × 1
   
X ∂p ∂τ
Fx = p∆y − p + ∆x ∆y + τ ∆x − τ + ∆y ∆x = 0
∂x ∂y

∂τ ∂p
= = 0 ⇒ τ = const
∂y ∂x
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Example - Flow Between Plates
u=V

h u(y) du τ
= = const
dy µ

u = a + by
(
y=0⇒u=0
y=h⇒u=V
V
u= y
h

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Flow Categories

viscous inviscid

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Flow Categories

viscous inviscid

compressible incompressible

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Flow Categories

viscous inviscid

compressible incompressible

turbulent laminar

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Flow Categories

viscous inviscid

compressible incompressible

turbulent laminar

unsteady steady-state

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Flow Categories

viscous inviscid

compressible incompressible

turbulent laminar

unsteady steady-state

3D 1D/2D

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