Unit I

Basics Of Linear Integrated Circuits Applications

• An electronic circuit is a group of electronic components connected for a specific

purpose.

• A simple electronic circuit can be designed easily because it requires few discrete
electronic components and connections. However, designing a complex
electronic circuit is difficult, as it requires more number of discrete electronic
components and their connections.

• It is also time taking to build such complex circuits and their reliability is also less.
These difficulties can be overcome with Integrated Circuits.

Integrated Circuit (IC)

• If multiple electronic components are interconnected on a single chip of

semiconductor material, then that chip is called as an Integrated Circuit (IC).
• It consists of both active and passive components.

Advantages of Integrated Circuits

• Compact size

• Lesser weight

• Low power consumption

• Reduced cost

• Increased reliability

• Improved operating speeds

Types of Integrated Circuits

Integrated circuits are of two types −

• Analog Integrated Circuits and

• Digital Integrated Circuits.

Analog Integrated Circuits
Integrated circuits that operate over an entire range of continuous values
of the signal amplitude are called as Analog Integrated Circuits.
Types:-

• Linear Integrated Circuits :- An analog IC is said to be Linear, if there exists

a linear relation between its voltage and current. IC 741, an 8-pin Dual In-line
Package (DIP)op-amp, is an example of Linear IC.

• Radio Frequency Integrated Circuits:- An analog IC is said to be Non-Linear,

if there exists a non-linear relation between its voltage and current. A Non-Linear
IC is also called as Radio Frequency IC.
Digital Integrated Circuits

• If the integrated circuits operate only at a few pre-defined levels instead of

operating for an entire range of continuous values of the signal amplitude, then
those are called as Digital Integrated Circuits.

Basics Of Operational Amplifier

• Operational Amplifier, also called as an Op-Amp, is an integrated circuit, which

can be used to perform various linear, non-linear, and mathematical operations.

• An op-amp is a direct coupled high gain amplifier.

• You can operate op-amp both with AC and DC signals.

Construction of Operational Amplifier

• An op-amp consists of differential amplifier(s), a level translator and an output

stage.

• A differential amplifier is present at the input stage of an op-amp and hence an

op-amp consists of two input terminals.

• One of those terminals is called as the inverting terminal and the other one is
called as the non-inverting terminal.

• The terminals are named based on the phase relationship between their
respective inputs and outputs
Characteristics of Operational Amplifier

• The important characteristics or parameters of an operational amplifier are as

follows −

– Open loop voltage gain

– Output offset voltage

– Common Mode Rejection

– Ratio Slew Rate

Open loop voltage gain

• The open loop voltage gain of an op-amp is its differential gain without any
feedback path.

• Mathematically, the open loop voltage gain of an op-amp is represented as −

Output offset voltage:-

The voltage present at the output of an op-amp when its differential input
voltage is zero is called as output offset voltage.
Common Mode Rejection Ratio

• Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) of an op-amp is defined as the ratio of

the closed loop differential gain, and the common mode gain, .

• Mathematically, CMRR can be represented as

 Note that the common mode gain, of an op-amp is the ratio of the common
mode output voltage and the common mode input voltage.
Slew Rate

• Slew rate of an op-amp is defined as the maximum rate of change of the output
voltage due to a step input voltage.

• Mathematically, slew rate (SR) can be represented as −

• Where, V0 is the output voltage. In general, slew rate is measured in either V /μ

Sec or V /m Sec
Types of Operational Amplifiers

• An op-amp is represented with a triangle symbol having two inputs and one
output.

• Op-amps are of two types:

– Ideal Op-Amp and

– Practical Op-Amp.
Ideal Op-Amp

• An ideal op-amp exists only in theory, and does not exist practically.

• Slew Rate (SR) is infinity. It means, the ideal op-amp will produce a change in the
output instantly in response to an input step voltage.

• Slew Rate (SR) is infinity. It means, the ideal op-amp will produce a change in the
output instantly in response to an input step voltage.
 • Slew Rate (SR) is infinity. It means, the ideal op-amp will produce a change in the
output instantly in response to an input step voltage.
Practical Op-Amp

• Practically, op-amps are not ideal and deviate from their ideal characteristics
because of some imperfections during manufacturing.

• The equivalent circuit of a practical op-amp is shown in the following figure −

Digital Arithmetic Circuits

Binary Adder
The most basic arithmetic operation is addition. The circuit, which performs the addition
of two binary numbers is known as Binary adder. First, let us implement an adder, which
performs theaddition of two bits.
Half Adder

Half adder is a combinational circuit, which performs the addition of two binary
numbers A and Bare of single bit. It produces two outputs sum, S & carry, C.
The Truth table of Half adder is shown below.

When we do the addition of two bits, the resultant sum can have the values ranging
from 0 to 2 indecimal. We can represent the decimal digits 0 and 1 with single bit in
binary. But, we can’trepresent decimal digit 2 with single bit in binary. So, we require
two bits for representing it inbinary.

Let, sum, S is the Least significant bit and carry, C is the Most significant bit of the
resultant sum.For first three combinations of inputs, carry, C is zero and the value of S
will be either zero or onebased on the number of ones present at the inputs. But, for
last combination of inputs, carry, C isone and sum, S is zero, since the resultant sum is
two.

From Truth table, we can directly write the Boolean functions for each output as

We can implement the above functions with 2-input Ex-OR gate & 2-input AND gate.
The circuitdiagram of Half adder is shown in the following figure.
In the above circuit, a two input Ex-OR gate & two input AND gate produces sum, S &
carry, Crespectively. Therefore, Half-adder performs the addition of two bits.

Full Adder

Full adder is a combinational circuit, which performs the addition of three bits A, B and C. Where,A
& B are the two parallel significant bits and C is the carry bit, which is generated from previousstage.
This Full adder also produces two outputs sum, S & carry, C, which are similar to Halfadder.

The Truth table of Full adder is shown below

When we do the addition of three bits, the resultant sum can have the values ranging
from 0 to 3in decimal. We can represent the decimal digits 0 and 1 with single bit in
binary. But, we can’trepresent the decimal digits 2 and 3 with single bit in binary. So, we
require two bits forrepresenting those two decimal digits in binary.

Let, sum, S is the Least significant bit and carry, C is the Most significant bit of resultant
sum. It iseasy to fill the values of outputs for all combinations of inputs in the truth table.
Just count thenumber of ones present at the inputs and write the equivalent binary
number at outputs. If C isequal to zero, then Full adder truth table is same as that of
Half adder truth table.
We will get the following Boolean functions for each output after simplification.

The sum, S is equal to one, when odd number of ones present at the inputs. We know
that Ex-ORgate produces an output, which is an odd function. So, we can use either two
2input Ex-OR gatesor one 3-input Ex-OR gate in order to produce sum, S. We can
implement carry, C using two 2-input AND gates & one OR gate. The circuit diagram of
Full adder is shown in the following figure.

This adder is called as Full adder because for implementing one Full adder, we require
two Halfadders and one OR gate. If C is zero, then Full adder becomes Half adder. We
can verify it easilyfrom the above circuit diagram or from the Boolean functions of
outputs of Full adder.

4-bit Binary Adder

The 4-bit binary adder performs the addition of two 4-bit numbers. Let the 4-bit binary numbers,

A = A3A2A1A0 and B = B3B2B1B0

We can implement 4-bit binary adder in one of thetwo following ways.

Use one Half adder for doing the addition of two Least significant bits and three Full
addersfor doing the addition of three higher significant bits.

Use four Full adders for uniformity. Since, initial carry C is zero, the Full adder which is
usedfor adding the least significant bits becomes Half adder.
For the time being, we considered second approach. The block diagram of 4-bit binary adder
isshown in the following figure.

Here, the 4 Full adders are cascaded. Each Full adder is getting the respective bits of two
parallelinputs A & B. The carry output of one Full adder will be the carry input of
subsequent higher orderFull adder. This 4-bit binary adder produces the resultant sum
having at most 5 bits. So, carry outof last stage Full adder will be the MSB.

In this way, we can implement any higher order binary adder just by cascading the
requirednumber of Full adders. This binary adder is also called as ripple carry binary
adder because the carry propagates ripples from one stage to the next stage.

Binary Subtractor
The circuit, which performs the subtraction of two binary numbers is known as Binary
subtractor.We can implement Binary subtractor in following two methods.

 Cascade Full subtractors

 2’s complement method

In first method, we will get an n-bit binary subtractor by cascading ‘n’ Full subtractors.
So, first youcan implement Half subtractor and Full subtractor, similar to Half adder &
Full adder. Then, youcan implement an n-bit binary subtractor, by cascading ‘n’ Full
subtractors. So, we will be havingtwo separate circuits for binary addition and
subtraction of two binary numbers.

In second method, we can use same binary adder for subtracting two binary numbers
just by doingsome modifications in the second input. So, internally binary addition
operation takes place but, theoutput is resultant subtraction.

We know that the subtraction of two binary numbers A & B can be written as,

4-bit Binary Subtractor

The 4-bit binary subtractor produces the subtraction of two 4-bit numbers. Let the 4bit
binarynumbers, A = A3A2A1A0 and B = B3B2B1B0.

Internally, the operation of 4-bit Binarysubtractor is similar to that of 4-bit Binary adder.
If the normal bits of binary number A, complemented bits of binary number B and initial
carry , C as one are applied to 4-bitBinary adder, then it becomes 4-bit Binary subtractor.
The block diagram of 4-bit binary subtractoris shown in the following figure.
This 4-bit binary subtractor produces an output, which is having at most 5 bits. If Binary
number Ais greater than Binary number B, then MSB of the output is zero and the
remaining bits hold themagnitude of A-B. If Binary number A is less than Binary number
B, then MSB of the output is one.So, take the 2’s complement of output in order to get
the magnitude of A-B.

In this way, we can implement any higher order binary subtractor just by cascading the
requirednumber of Full adders with necessary modifications.

Binary Adder / Subtractor

The circuit, which can be used to perform either addition or subtraction of two binary
numbers atany time is known as Binary Adder / subtractor. Both, Binary adder and
Binary subtractor contain aset of Full adders, which are cascaded. The input bits of
binary number A are directly applied inboth Binary adder and Binary subtractor.

There are two differences in the inputs of Full adders that are present in Binary adder
and Binarysubtractor.
The input bits of binary number B are directly applied to Full adders in Binary adder,
whereasthe complemented bits of binary number B are applied to Full adders in Binary
subtractor.

The initial carry, C0 = 0 is applied in 4-bit Binary adder, whereas the initial carry borrow,
C0= 1 is applied in 4-bit Binary subtractor.

We know that a 2-input Ex-OR gate produces an output, which is same as that of first
input whenother input is zero. Similarly, it produces an output, which is complement of
first input when otherinput is one.

Therefore, we can apply the input bits of binary number B, to 2-input Ex-OR gates. The
other inputto all these Ex-OR gates is C. So, based on the value of C, the Ex-OR gates
produce either thenormal or complemented bits of binary number B.

4-bit Binary Adder / Subtractor

The 4-bit binary adder / subtractor produces either the addition or the subtraction of
two 4-bitnumbers based on the value of initial carry or borrow, . Let the 4-bit binary
numbers, A = A3A2A1A0 and B = B3B2B1B0 .
The operation of 4-bit Binary adder / subtractor issimilar to that of 4-bit Binary adder
and 4-bit Binary subtractor.

Apply the normal bits of binary numbers A and B & initial carry or borrow, C from
externally to a4-bit binary adder. The block diagram of 4-bit binary adder / subtractor is
shown in the followingfigure.

If initial carry, C0 is zero, then each full adder gets the normal bits of binary numbers A &
B. So, the4-bit binary adder / subtractor produces an output, which is the addition of
two binary numbers A& B.

If initial borrow, C0 is one, then each full adder gets the normal bits of binary number A
&complemented bits of binary number B. So, the 4-bit binary adder / subtractor
produces an output,which is the subtraction of two binary numbers A & B.

Therefore, with the help of additional Ex-OR gates, the same circuit can be used for both
additionand subtraction of two binary numbers.
Arithmetic Circuits

• The electronic circuits, which perform arithmetic operations are called as

arithmetic circuits.
 • Using op-amps, you can build basic arithmetic circuits such as an adder and a
subtractor

In the above circuit, the non-inverting input terminal of the op-amp is connected to
ground.

That means zero volts is applied at its non-inverting input terminal.

According to the virtual short concept, the voltage at the inverting input terminal of an
op-amp is same as that of the voltage at its non-inverting input terminal. So, the voltage
at the inverting input terminal of the op-amp will be zero volts.
The nodal equation at the inverting input terminal's node is
Therefore, the op-amp based adder circuit discussed above will produce the sum of the
two input voltages and , as the output, when all the resistors present in the circuit are of
same value.

Note that the output voltage of an adder circuit is having a negative sign, which
indicates that there exists a 180 phase difference between the input and the output.

Subtractor

A subtractor is an electronic circuit that produces an output, which is equal to the

difference of the applied inputs. This section discusses about the op-amp based
subtractor circuit.

An op-amp based subtractor produces an output equal to the difference of the input
voltages applied at its inverting and non-inverting terminals. It is also called as a
difference amplifier, since the output is an amplified one.
Now, let us find the expression for output voltage V0 of the above circuit using
superposition theorem using the following steps –

Step 1 Firstly, let us calculate the output voltage V01 by considering only V1 . For this,
eliminate V2 by making it short circuit. Then we obtain the modified circuit diagram as
shown in the following figure –

Now, using the voltage division principle, calculate the voltage at the non-inverting
input terminal of the op-amp.
Now, the above circuit looks like a non-inverting amplifier having input voltage Vp .
Therefore, the output voltage V01of above circuit will be

Substitute, the value of Vp in above equation, we obtain the output voltage V01 by considering only V1,
as –

Step 2 In this step, let us find the output voltage, V02 by considering only V2. Similar to
that in the above step, eliminate V1 by making it short circuit. The modified circuit
diagram is shown in the following figure.

You can observe that the voltage at the non-inverting input terminal of the op-amp will
be zero volts. It means, the above circuit is simply an inverting op-amp. Therefore, the
output voltage V02 of above circuit will be –

Step 3 In this step, we will obtain the output voltage V0 of the subtractor circuit by
adding the output voltages obtained in Step1 and Step2. Mathematically, it can be
written as

Substituting the values of V01 and V02 in the above equation, we get –
Thus, the op-amp based subtractor circuit discussed above will produce an output,
which is the difference of two input voltages V1 and V2, when all the resistors present in
the circuit are of same value.

Op-Amp-Applications

A circuit is said to be linear, if there exists a linear relationship between its input and the
output. Similarly, a circuit is said to be non-linear, if there exists a non-linear relationship
between its input and output.

Op-amps can be used in both linear and non-linear applications. The following are the
basic applications of op-amp −
Inverting Amplifier
Non-inverting Amplifier
Voltage follower
Inverting Amplifier
An inverting amplifier takes the input through its inverting terminal through a
resistor , and produces its amplified version as the output. This amplifier not only
amplifies the input but also inverts it (changes its sign).

The circuit diagram of an inverting amplifier is shown in the following figure –

Note that for an op-amp, the voltage at the inverting input terminal is equal to the
voltage at its non-inverting input terminal. Physically, there is no short between those
two terminals but virtually, they are in short with each other.

In the circuit shown above, the non-inverting input terminal is connected to ground.
That means zero volts is applied at the non-inverting input terminal of the op-amp.

According to the virtual short concept, the voltage at the inverting input terminal of an
op-amp will be zero volts.

The nodal equation at this terminal's node is as shown below –

The ratio of the output voltage V0 and the input voltage Vi is the voltage-gain or gain of
the amplifier.

Therefore, the gain of inverting amplifier is equal to .

Note that the gain of the inverting amplifier is having a negative sign. It indicates that
there exists a1800 phase difference between the input and the output.

Non-Inverting Amplifier
A non-inverting amplifier takes the input through its non-inverting terminal, and
produces it samplified version as the output.

As the name suggests, this amplifier just amplifies the input, without inverting or
changing the sign of the output.
The circuit diagram of a non-inverting amplifier is shown in the following figure –
In the above circuit, the input voltage Vi is directly applied to the non-inverting input
terminal ofop-amp. So, the voltage at the non-inverting input terminal of the op-amp
will be Vi.

By using voltage division principle, we can calculate the voltage at the inverting input
terminal ofthe op-amp as shown below –

According to the virtual short concept, the voltage at the inverting input terminal of an
op-amp issame as that of the voltage at its non-inverting input terminal.
Now, the ratio of output voltage V0 and input voltage Vi or the voltage-gain or gain of
the non-inverting amplifier is equal to

Note that the gain of the non-inverting amplifier is having a positive sign. It indicates
that there is no phase difference between the input and the output.

Voltage follower
A voltage follower is an electronic circuit, which produces an output that follows the
input voltage. It is a special case of non-inverting amplifier.
If we consider the value of feedback resistor, Rf as zero ohms and (or) the value of
resistor, 1 as infinity ohms, then a non-inverting amplifier becomes a voltage follower.
The circuit diagram of a voltage follower is shown in the following figure –

In the above circuit, the input voltage Vi is directly applied to the non-inverting input
terminal of the op-amp. So, the voltage at the non-inverting input terminal of op-amp is
equal to Vi.

Here, the output is directly connected to the inverting input terminal of opamp. Hence,
the voltage at the inverting input terminal of op-amp is equal to V0.

According to the virtual short concept, the voltage at the inverting input terminal of the
op-amp is same as that of the voltage at its non-inverting input terminal.

So, the output voltage V0 of a voltage follower is equal to its input voltage Vi.

Thus, the gain of a voltage follower is equal to one since, both output voltage V0 and
input voltage Vi of voltage follower are same.
555 Timer

The 555 Timer IC got its name from the three 5KΩ resistors that are used in its voltage
divider network. This IC is useful for generating accurate time delays and oscillations.
This chapter explains about 555 Timer in detail

Pin Diagram and Functional Diagram

In this section, first let us discuss about the pin diagram of 555 Timer IC and then its
functional diagram.

Pin Diagram

The 555 Timer IC is an 8 pin mini Dual-Inline Package (DIP). The pin diagram of a 555
Timer IC is shown in the following figure −

The significance of each pin is self-explanatory from the above diagram. This 555 Timer
IC can beoperated with a DC supply of +5V to +18V. It is mainly useful for generating
non-sinusoidal waveforms like square, ramp, pulse & etc

Functional Diagram

The pictorial representation showing the internal details of a 555 Timer is known as
functionaldiagram.

The functional diagram of 555 Timer IC is shown in the following figure −

Observe that the functional diagram of 555 Timer contains a voltage divider network,
twocomparators, one SR flip-flop, two transistors and an inverter. This section discusses
about thepurpose of each block or component in detail −

Voltage Divider Network

The voltage divider network consists of a three 5KΩ resistors that are connected in
seriesbetween the supply voltage Vcc and ground.

This network provides a voltage of Vcc/3 between a point and ground, if there exists
only one 5KΩ resistor. Similarly, it provides a voltage of 2Vcc/ 3 between a point and
ground, if thereexists only two 5KΩ resistors.

Comparator

The functional diagram of a 555 Timer IC consists of two comparators: an Upper

Comparator(UC) and a Lower Comparator (LC).

Recall that a comparator compares the two inputs that are applied to it and produces
anoutput.

If the voltage present at the non-inverting terminal of an op-amp is greater than the
voltagepresent at its inverting terminal, then the output of comparator will be +Vsat .
This can beconsidered as Logic High ('1') in digital representation.
If the voltage present at the non-inverting terminal of op-amp is less than or equal to
thevoltage at its inverting terminal, then the output of comparator will be −Vsat . This
can beconsidered as Logic Low ('0') in digital representation.

SR Flip-Flop

Recall that a SR flip-flop operates with either positive clock transitions or negative
clocktransitions. It has two inputs: S and R, and two outputs: Q(t) and Q(t)’. The outputs,
Q(t) &Q(t)’ are complement to each other.

The following table shows the state table of a SR flip-flop

Here, Q(t) & Q(t+1) are present state & next state respectively. So, SR flip-flop can be
used forone of these three functions such as Hold, Reset & Set based on the input
conditions, whenpositive (negative) transition of clock signal is applied.

The outputs of Lower Comparator (LC) and Upper Comparator (UC) are applied as inputs
ofSR flip-flop as shown in the functional diagram of 555 Timer IC.

Transistors and Inverter

The functional diagram of a 555 Timer IC consists of one npn transistor Q1 and one
pnptransistor Q2 . The npn transistor Q1 will be turned ON if its base to emitter voltage
ispositive and greater than cut-in voltage. Otherwise, it will be turned-OFF.

The pnp transistor Q2 is used as buffer in order to isolate the reset input from SR flip-
flop and npn transistor Q1 .
The inverter used in the functional diagram of a 555 Timer IC not only performs the
invertingaction but also amplifies the power level.

The 555 Timer IC can be used in mono stable operation in order to produce a pulse at
the output.Similarly, it can be used in astable operation in order to produce a square
wave at the output.