Signals and Systems Course # EE 2235

Lecture #2 Topic: Classification of Signals

• Continuous-time signal vs. discrete time signal
• Analog vs. Digital signal
• Periodic vs. aperiodic
• Causal vs. non-causal
• Even vs. odd
• Deterministic vs. random
• Right-handed vs. left-handed
• Finite vs. infinite length (duration) signal
• Energy signal vs. power signal

(i) Continuous-Time vs. Discrete-Time

As the names suggest, this classification is determined by whether or not the time axis (x-axis) is discrete
(countable) or continuous (Figure 1). A continuous-time signal will contain a value for all real numbers along
the time axis. In contrast to this, a discrete-time signal is often created by using the sampling theorem to
sample a continuous signal, so it will only have values at equally spaced intervals along the time axis.
CT signal: x(t )  a cos(wt   )
DT signal: x[n]  x(nT )  {x(0), x(T ),..., x( N  1)T }, n  0,1,2,...

Figure 1

Examples:
• Continuous time signals (t->time, x->signal, x(t) -> CT signal)
– Most of the signals in the physical world are CT signals—E.g. voltage & current, pressure,
temperature, velocity, etc.
• Discrete time signals in nature: (n->time, x->signal, x[n] -> DT signal)
– DNA base sequence
– Population of the nth generation of certain species

(ii) Analog vs. Digital

The difference between analog and digital is similar to the difference between continuous-time and discrete-
time. In this case, however, the difference is with respect to the value of the function (y-axis) (Figure 2).
Analog corresponds to a continuous y-axis, while digital corresponds to a discrete y-axis.

-1

Figure 2

Edited: Dr. Mohiuddin Ahmad EE 2235: Signals and Systems Dept. of EEE, KUET
Examples:
• Analog: signals in nature, such as a speech signal
• Digital: binary sequence

(iii) Periodic vs. Aperiodic

Periodic signals repeat with some period T, while aperiodic, or nonperiodic, signals do not (Figure 3). We can
define a periodic function through the following mathematical expression, where t can be any number and T is
a positive constant: f(t) =f(T+t) for all t (1)

The fundamental period of our function, f(t), is the smallest value of T that the still allows Equation 1 to be
true.
(a) A periodic signal with period T0

(b) An aperiodic signal

Figure 3

A discrete-time signal x[n] is said to be periodic if it satisfies the following condition:

x[n]  x[n  T ], for all integer n

2
The fundamental angular frequency or fundamental frequency of x[n] is defined as   in radians
N
(iv) Causal vs. Anticausal vs. Noncausal // Causal vs. non-causal
Causal signals are signals that are zero for all negative time, while anticausal are signals that are zero for all
positive time. Noncausal signals are signals that have nonzero values in both positive and negative time
(Figure 4). A signal x[n] is causal if x[n] = 0 for all n < 0. It is anti-causal if x[n] = 0 for all n > 0.

(a) A causal signal (b) An anticausal signal (c) A noncausal signal

Figure 4

Edited: Dr. Mohiuddin Ahmad EE 2235: Signals and Systems Dept. of EEE, KUET
(v) Even vs. Odd

An even signal is any signal f such that f(t) =f(−t). Even signals can be easily spotted as they are symmetric
around the vertical axis. An odd signal, on the other hand, is a signal f such that f(t) =−(f(−t)) (Figure 5).

(a) An even signal (b) An odd signal

Figure 5

Using the definitions of even and odd signals, we can show that any signal can be written as a combination of
an even and odd signal. That is, every signal has an odd-even decomposition. To demonstrate this, we have to
look no further than a single equation.

f(t)=1/2 [f(t)+f(-t)] + 1/2 [f(t) – f(-t)] (2)

By multiplying and adding this expression out, it can be shown to be true. Also, it can be shown that f(t) +f(−t)
fulfills the requirement of an even function, while f(t) −f(−t) fulfills the requirement of an odd function.

A function whose even part is zero is odd and a function whose odd part is zero is even.
x(t )  x(t ) x(t )  x(t )
Even function: xe (t )  , Odd function: xo (t ) 
2 2
Example 1(a) The signal we will decompose using odd-even decomposition

(b) Even part: e(t) = ½ (f(t) +f(−t) )

(c) Odd part: o(t) = ½ (f(t) −f(−t) )

(d) Check: e(t) +o(t) =f(t)

Edited: Dr. Mohiuddin Ahmad EE 2235: Signals and Systems Dept. of EEE, KUET
 Figure 6

(vi) Deterministic vs. Random

A deterministic signal is a signal in which each value of the signal is fixed and can be determined by a
mathematical expression, rule, or table. Because of this, the future values of the signal can be calculated from
past values with complete confidence. On the other hand, a random signal has a lot of uncertainty about its
behavior. The future values of a random signal cannot be accurately predicted and can usually only be guessed
based on the averages of sets of signals (Figure 7).

(a) Deterministic Signal

(b) Random Signal

Figure 7

(vii) Right-handed vs. Left-Handed

A right-handed signal and left-handed signal are those signals whose value is zero between a given variable
and positive or negative infinity. Mathematically speaking, a right-handed signal is defined as any signal
where f(t) =0 for t&lt;t1&lt;∞, and a left-handed signal is defined as any signal where f(t) =0 for t>t1>−∞. See
(Figure 8) for an example. Both figures "begin" at t1 and then extends to positive or negative infinity with
mainly nonzero values.

(a) Right-handed signal (b) Left-handed signal

Figure 8
(viii) Finite vs. Infinite Length (duration)
As the name applies, signals can be characterized as to whether they have a finite or infinite length set of
values. Most finite length signals are used when dealing with discrete-time signals or a given sequence of
values. Mathematically speaking, f(t) is a finite-length signal if it is nonzero over a finite interval t1 <f(t)< t2
where t1>−∞ and t2 < ∞. An example can be seen in Figure 9. Similarly, an infinite-length signal, f(t), is
defined as nonzero overall real numbers: ∞≤f(t) ≤−∞.

Edited: Dr. Mohiuddin Ahmad EE 2235: Signals and Systems Dept. of EEE, KUET
Figure 9: Finite-Length Signal. Note that it only has nonzero values on a set, finite interval.
First, we divide all signals into two classes: those that are of finite duration and those that are of infinite duration.
A signal x[n] is of finite duration if there exists two integers ∞< N1 <= N2 <∞, such that x[n] = 0 only for N1 <= n
<= N2. Otherwise, it is of infinite duration.

(ix) Energy and power signals

• Energy Signals: an energy signal is a signal with finite energy and zero average power
(0 ≤ E < , P = 0)

• Power Signals: a power signal is a signal with infinite energy but finite average power
(0 < P < , E  ).

In general, power is given by p(t )  x (t ) , since p(t )  v (t ) / R or p(t )  i (t ) R

2 2 2

T /2 
E  lim x (t )dt  x
2 2
The total energy of the continuous time signal x(t) as (t )dt and its
T 
T / 2 
T /2
1
average power as P  lim x
2
(t )dt
T  T
T / 2
T /2
1
The average power of a periodic signal x(t) of fundamental period T is given by P  x
2
(t )dt
T T / 2
The square root of the average power P is called the root-mean-square (RMS) value of the signal x(t).


In case of discrete-time signal x[n], the total energy of x[n] is defined as E  x
n  
2
[ n] and its average
N
1
power is defined as P  lim
N  2N
x
n N
2
[ n] .
N 1
1
The average power of a periodic signal x[n] with fundamental period N is given by P 
N
x
n 0
2
[ n]
General rule: A signal cannot be both an energy and power signal.
• A signal may be neither energy nor power signal.
• All periodic signals are power signals (but not all non–periodic signals are energy signals).
• Any signal f that has limited amplitude (|f| < ) and is time limited (f = 0 for |t |> t0) is an energy
signal.
• The square root of the average power of a power signal is called the RMS value.
• Periodic and random signals are power signals. Signals that are both deterministic and non-periodic
are energy signals.

Edited: Dr. Mohiuddin Ahmad EE 2235: Signals and Systems Dept. of EEE, KUET
Q1. Evaluate E and P and determine the type of the signal a(t )  3 sin(2t ),    t  
Solution: It is a power signal

1 1
  1
1 0
Pa  | a (t ) |2 dt   | 3sin(2 t ) |2 dt
Ea   | a(t ) | dt   | 3sin(2 t ) |
2 2
dt 0
  1
1
1
  9 1  cos(4 t )dt
 9  1  cos(4 t ) dt 0
2

2 0
1
1

   9  dt  9  cos(4 t )dt
1 2
9 dt  9  cos(4 t )dt 0 0
1

2  9  9 
   sin(4 t ) 
 J 2  4 0
9
 W
2

Q2. Evaluate E and P and determine the type of the signal b(t )  5e2|t| ,    t  
Solution: It is an energy signal
T /2 T /2
  1 1
 
2
Pb  lim | b (t ) |2 dt  lim 5e 2|t | dt
 | b (t ) | dt  
2|t | 2
Eb  2
5e dt T  T
T / 2
T  T
T / 2
  0 T /2
1 1
 e
4t
0   25 lim e 4t dt  25 lim dt
T  T T  T
 25  e dt  25 e dt
4t 4t T / 2 0

25 1 0 25 1 T /2
 0
 lim e 4t   lim e 4t 
4 T  T T / 2 4 T  T 0
25 4t 0 25 
 e   e 4t  25 1 25 1
4  4 0  lim 1  e 2T   lim e 2T  1
4 T  T 4 T  T
25 25 50  00  0
   J
4 4 4

Combination of Odd and even function

Function type Sum Difference Product Quotient

Both even Even Even Even Even

Both odd Odd Odd Even Even

Even and odd Neither Neither Odd Odd

Edited: Dr. Mohiuddin Ahmad EE 2235: Signals and Systems Dept. of EEE, KUET