Theory based question answers of c++ language

### 1. What is C++? How is it different from C?

**C++** is a general-purpose programming language that was

developed as an extension of the C programming language. It was
created by Bjarne Stroustrup in the early 1980s. C++ introduces object-
oriented programming (OOP) features, such as classes and objects,
while retaining the efficiency and flexibility of C.

**Key Differences Between C and C++:**

- **Paradigm**: C is a procedural programming language, while C++

supports both procedural and object-oriented programming paradigms.
- **OOP Features**: C++ introduces classes, objects, inheritance,
polymorphism, encapsulation, and abstraction, which are not present in
C.
- **Standard Library**: C++ has a richer standard library, including the
Standard Template Library (STL), which provides templates for common
data structures and algorithms.
- **Function Overloading**: C++ supports function overloading (multiple
functions with the same name but different parameters), while C does
not.
- **Namespaces**: C++ uses namespaces to avoid name collisions,
whereas C does not have this feature.
- **Exception Handling**: C++ provides built-in support for exception
handling using `try`, `catch`, and `throw`, which is absent in C.
- **Constructors and Destructors**: C++ allows the use of constructors
and destructors for object initialization and cleanup, which C lacks.
- **References**: C++ supports references (an alias for a variable),
while C only uses pointers.

---

### 2. What are the key features of C++?

The key features of C++ include:

1. **Object-Oriented Programming (OOP)**:

- Supports classes, objects, inheritance, polymorphism,
encapsulation, and abstraction.
- Enables modular and reusable code.

2. **Procedural Programming**:
 - Retains the procedural programming style of C, allowing for
structured programming.

3. **Standard Template Library (STL)**:

- Provides pre-built templates for data structures (e.g., vectors, lists,
maps) and algorithms (e.g., sorting, searching).

4. **Function Overloading**:
- Allows multiple functions with the same name but different
parameters.

5. **Operator Overloading**:
- Enables defining custom behavior for operators (e.g., `+`, `-`, `*`)
for user-defined types.

6. **Exception Handling**:
- Provides mechanisms for handling runtime errors using `try`,
`catch`, and `throw`.

7. **Namespaces**:
- Helps avoid naming conflicts by grouping entities under a unique
scope.

8. **Constructors and Destructors**:

- Automates object initialization and cleanup.

9. **Templates**:
- Supports generic programming by allowing functions and classes to
operate with any data type.

10. **Memory Management**:

- Provides control over dynamic memory allocation and deallocation
using `new` and `delete`.

11. **Multi-threading**:
- Supports concurrent programming through libraries like
`<thread>`.

12. **Portability**:
- C++ code can be compiled and run on various platforms with
minimal changes.
---

### 3. What is the difference between procedural and object-oriented

programming?

| **Aspect** | **Procedural Programming** |

**Object-Oriented Programming (OOP)** |
|-----------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------|----------
---------------------------------------------|
| **Focus** | Focuses on procedures or functions.
| Focuses on objects and their interactions. |
| **Program Structure** | Programs are divided into functions.
| Programs are divided into classes and objects. |
| **Data and Behavior** | Data and functions are separate.
| Data and functions are encapsulated together in objects. |
| **Reusability** | Limited reusability through functions.
| High reusability through inheritance and polymorphism. |
| **Approach** | Top-down approach (programs are broken into
functions).| Bottom-up approach (programs are built using objects).|
| **Data Security** | Less secure, as data is globally accessible.
| More secure, as data is encapsulated and accessed via methods. |
| **Examples** | C, Pascal, FORTRAN. | C+
+, Java, Python. |
| **Key Concepts** | Functions, variables, and procedures.
| Classes, objects, inheritance, polymorphism, encapsulation, and
abstraction. |
| **Complexity Management** | Suitable for small to medium-sized
programs. | Suitable for large and complex programs. |

In summary, procedural programming is function-centric, while object-

oriented programming is object-centric, emphasizing modularity,
reusability, and data security. C++ supports both paradigms, making it
a versatile language.

### 1. What are tokens in C++? Explain with examples.

**Tokens** are the smallest individual units in a C++ program. They are
the building blocks of a program and are recognized by the compiler.
Tokens include:

- **Keywords** (e.g., `int`, `if`, `else`)

- **Identifiers** (e.g., variable names like `count`, `sum`)
- **Constants/Literals** (e.g., `10`, `3.14`, `'A'`)
- **Operators** (e.g., `+`, `-`, `*`, `/`)
- **Special Symbols** (e.g., `;`, `{}`, `()`)
**Example:**
```cpp
int main() {
int a = 10; // 'int', 'main', 'a', '10', ';' are tokens
return 0;
}
```

---

### 2. What are keywords, identifiers, constants, and literals in C++?

#### **Keywords**:
- Keywords are reserved words that have special meaning in C++.
- They cannot be used as identifiers (e.g., variable names).
- Examples: `int`, `if`, `else`, `while`, `return`, `class`, `public`, etc.

#### **Identifiers**:
- Identifiers are names given to variables, functions, classes, etc.
- Rules for identifiers:
- Must start with a letter or underscore (`_`).
- Can contain letters, digits, or underscores.
- Cannot be a keyword.
- Case-sensitive.
- Examples: `sum`, `myVariable`, `calculateArea`, `_count`.

#### **Constants/Literals**:
- Constants are fixed values that do not change during program
execution.
- Literals are the actual values assigned to variables or constants.
- Examples:
- Integer literal: `10`
- Floating-point literal: `3.14`
- Character literal: `'A'`
- String literal: `"Hello"`

---
### 3. Explain the different data types in C++.

C++ supports a variety of data types, which can be categorized as

follows:

#### **Primitive/Built-in Data Types**:

1. **Integer Types**:
- `int`: Stores whole numbers (e.g., `10`, `-5`).
- `short`: Smaller range than `int`.
- `long`: Larger range than `int`.
- `long long`: Even larger range.

2. **Floating-Point Types**:
- `float`: Single-precision floating-point numbers (e.g., `3.14f`).
- `double`: Double-precision floating-point numbers (e.g., `3.14`).
- `long double`: Extended precision floating-point numbers.

3. **Character Types**:
- `char`: Stores a single character (e.g., `'A'`).
- `wchar_t`: Wide character for larger character sets.

4. **Boolean Type**:
- `bool`: Stores `true` or `false`.

#### **Derived Data Types**:

1. **Arrays**:
- Collection of elements of the same type (e.g., `int arr[5];`).

2. **Pointers**:
- Stores memory addresses (e.g., `int *ptr;`).

3. **References**:
- Alias for a variable (e.g., `int &ref = a;`).

#### **User-Defined Data Types**:

1. **Structures (`struct`)**:
- Groups related data items of different types.

2. **Classes (`class`)**:
 - Blueprint for objects, supporting OOP features.

3. **Unions (`union`)**:
- Similar to structures but shares memory for its members.

4. **Enumerations (`enum`)**:
- Defines a set of named integer constants.

---

### 4. What is type conversion? Explain implicit and explicit type

conversion.

#### **Type Conversion**:

- Type conversion is the process of converting a value from one data
type to another.

#### **Implicit Type Conversion**:

- Also called **automatic type conversion**.
- Performed by the compiler automatically when compatible types are
involved.
- Example:
```cpp
int a = 10;
double b = a; // 'a' is implicitly converted to double
```

#### **Explicit Type Conversion**:

- Also called **type casting**.
- Requires manual intervention using casting operators.
- Example:
```cpp
double x = 3.14;
int y = (int)x; // 'x' is explicitly cast to int
```

---

### 5. What is the difference between type casting and type

conversion?
| **Aspect** | **Type Conversion** | **Type
Casting** |
|------------------------|----------------------------------------------|--------------------------
-----------------|
| **Definition** | General term for converting one type to another. |
Specific form of type conversion, often explicit. |
| **Implicit/Explicit** | Can be implicit (automatic) or explicit. |
Always explicit (manual). |
| **Syntax** | Implicit: No syntax required. | Uses
casting operators like `(int)`, `static_cast<int>()`. |
| **Example** | `double b = 10;` (implicit). | `int y =
(int)3.14;` (explicit). |
| **Use Case** | Used when types are compatible. | Used
when types are incompatible or precision loss is expected. |

In summary, type conversion is a broader term that includes both

implicit and explicit changes, while type casting specifically refers to
explicit conversion.

### 1. What are control statements in C++? Explain types of loops.

**Control Statements** in C++ are used to control the flow of execution

in a program based on certain conditions or loops. They include:

1. **Conditional Statements**:
- `if`, `else if`, `else`: Execute code based on a condition.
- `switch`: Execute code based on the value of a variable.

2. **Looping Statements**:
- **`for` loop**: Repeats a block of code a specific number of times.
```cpp
for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
cout << i << endl;
}
```
- **`while` loop**: Repeats a block of code as long as a condition is
true.
```cpp
int i = 0;
while (i < 5) {
cout << i << endl;
 i++;
}
```
- **`do-while` loop**: Executes the block of code at least once, then
repeats as long as the condition is true.
```cpp
int i = 0;
do {
cout << i << endl;
i++;
} while (i < 5);
```

3. **Jump Statements**:
- `break`: Exits a loop or switch statement.
- `continue`: Skips the current iteration of a loop.
- `return`: Exits a function and optionally returns a value.
- `goto`: Jumps to a labeled statement (rarely used).

---

### 2. What is the difference between "while" and "do-while" loops?

| **Aspect** | **`while` Loop** | **`do-while`

Loop** |
|------------------------|-----------------------------------------------|-------------------------
-------------------|
| **Condition Check** | Condition is checked **before** the loop body
executes. | Condition is checked **after** the loop body executes. |
| **Execution** | The loop body may not execute at all if the
condition is false initially. | The loop body executes **at least once**,
even if the condition is false initially. |
| **Syntax** | ```cpp while (condition) { ... } ``` | ```cpp do
{ ... } while (condition); ``` |
| **Use Case** | Used when the loop body should execute only if
the condition is true. | Used when the loop body must execute at least
once. |

**Example**:
```cpp
int i = 5;
while (i < 5) { // This loop will not execute
 cout << i << endl;
i++;
}

do { // This loop will execute once

cout << i << endl;
i++;
} while (i < 5);
```

---

### 3. What are functions in C++? Explain types of functions.

**Functions** in C++ are reusable blocks of code that perform a specific

task. They help in modularizing code and improving readability.

#### **Types of Functions**:

1. **Predefined (Library) Functions**:
- Functions provided by C++ standard libraries (e.g., `cout`, `sqrt()`).

2. **User-Defined Functions**:
- Functions defined by the programmer.
- Example:
```cpp
int add(int a, int b) {
return a + b;
}
```

3. **Parameterized Functions**:
- Functions that accept parameters (arguments).

4. **Non-Parameterized Functions**:
- Functions that do not accept any parameters.

5. **Return Type Functions**:

- Functions that return a value using the `return` statement.
6. **Void Functions**:
- Functions that do not return any value.

---

### 4. What is function overloading? Explain with an example.

**Function Overloading** is a feature in C++ that allows multiple

functions to have the same name but different parameters (number or
type of parameters).

**Example**:
```cpp
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

// Function to add two integers

int add(int a, int b) {
return a + b;
}

// Function to add three integers

int add(int a, int b, int c) {
return a + b + c;
}

// Function to add two doubles

double add(double a, double b) {
return a + b;
}

int main() {
cout << add(2, 3) << endl; // Calls first function
cout << add(2, 3, 4) << endl; // Calls second function
cout << add(2.5, 3.5) << endl; // Calls third function
return 0;
}
```
**Output**:
```
5
9
6.0
```

---

### 5. What is the difference between call by value and call by

reference?

| **Aspect** | **Call by Value** | **Call by

Reference** |
|------------------------|----------------------------------------------|--------------------------
------------------|
| **Definition** | A copy of the actual value is passed to the
function. | The address of the actual value is passed to the function. |
| **Effect on Original Value** | Changes made to the parameter do not
affect the original value. | Changes made to the parameter affect the
original value. |
| **Syntax** | ```cpp void func(int a) { ... } ``` | ```cpp void
func(int &a) { ... } ``` |
| **Use Case** | Used when the original value should not be
modified. | Used when the original value needs to be modified. |

**Example**:
```cpp
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

// Call by value
void incrementByValue(int a) {
a++;
}

// Call by reference
void incrementByReference(int &a) {
a++;
}
int main() {
int x = 5;
incrementByValue(x); // x remains 5
cout << x << endl;

incrementByReference(x); // x becomes 6
cout << x << endl;
return 0;
}
```

**Output**:
```
5
6
```

---

### 6. What are inline functions? What are their advantages?

**Inline Functions**:
- Inline functions are functions where the compiler replaces the function
call with the actual code of the function to reduce the overhead of
function calls.
- Defined using the `inline` keyword.

**Example**:
```cpp
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

inline int square(int x) {

return x * x;
}

int main() {
cout << square(5) << endl; // Compiler replaces square(5) with 5 * 5
return 0;
}
```

**Advantages**:
1. **Reduced Overhead**:
- Eliminates the overhead of function calls (saving and restoring
registers, stack operations, etc.).
2. **Faster Execution**:
- Suitable for small, frequently called functions.
3. **Improved Performance**:
- Useful in performance-critical applications.

**Disadvantages**:
1. **Increased Binary Size**:
- The code is duplicated at each call site, increasing the size of the
executable.
2. **Not Suitable for Large Functions**:
- Inlining large functions can lead to code bloat.

**Note**: The `inline` keyword is a request to the compiler, and the

compiler may ignore it for large or complex functions.