POWER PLANT LECTURE NOTES

HYDEL POWER STATION/HYDRO ELECTRIC POWER PLANT

INTRODUCTION

Energy is a critical factor in developing countries for economic growth as well as for social
development and human welfare.
Hydropower is a renewable source of energy, which is economical, non-
polluting and environmentally benignamong all renewable sources of energy. For
efficient operationof hydropower plants, in order to meet the electricity demand,the hydro
energy is stored either in reservoirs for dam basedschemes or settling basins for run-
of-river schemes. Thesereservoirs or settling basins are filled with sediments over
aperiod of time. This problem must be taken care of by sedimentsettling systems in power
plants. However, lot of unsettledsediment pass through the turbines every year and
turbineparts are exposed to severe erosion. The erosion of hydroturbine components
is a major problem for the efficientoperation of hydropower plants. These problems
are moreprominent in power stations which are of run-of-river types.The problem is
aggravated if the silt contains higherpercentage of quartz, which is extremely
hard.

HYDRO POTENTIAL

India is endowed with economically exploitable and viable hydro potential

assessed to be about 84,000 MW at 60% load factor. In addition, 6,780 MW in
terms of installedcapacity from Small, Mini, and Micro Hydel schemes havebeen
assessed. Also, 56 sites for pumped storage schemeswith an aggregate installed
capacity of 94,000 MW havebeen identified. It is the most widely used form of
renewableenergy. India is blessed with immense amount of hydro-electric potential
and ranks 5th in terms of exploitable hydro- potential on global scenario.The present
installed capacity as on September 30, 2013 isapproximately 39,788.40 MW
which is 17.39% of totalelectricity generation in India. The public sector has a
predominant share of 97% in this sector. National Hydroelectric Power Corporation
(NHPC), Northeast Electric Power Company (NEEPCO), SatlujJalVidyut Nigam
(SJVNL), THDC, NTPC-Hydro are a few public sector companies engaged in
development of Hydroelectric Power in India. Bhakra Beas Management Board
(BBMB), an illustrative state owned enterprise in north India has an installed
capacity of 2.9 GW and generates 12,000-14,000 million units per year. The cost of
generation of energy after four decades of operation is about 20 paise/kWh. [citation
needed] BBMB is a major source of peaking power and black start to the northern
grid in India. Large reservoirs provide operational flexibility. BBMB reservoirs
annually supply water for irrigation to 12.5 million acres (51,000 km2; 19,500 sq
mi) of agricultural land of partner states, enabling northern India in its green
revolution.

HISTORY OF HYDROELECTRICITY

Archaeologists confirm that the history of the storage dam goes back to 5000 years
to 3000 BC. Vitruvius was the first architect to explain a water wheel which could
generate power. Then Barbegal from France in the 4th century AD worked on water

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wheels and generated a system of sixteen water wheels which followed the principle
of kinetic energy into mechanical energy.

STRENGTHS OF HYDRO POWER

• Environmental friendly, clean renewable

• High degree of flexibility
• Part of multipurpose project with additional benefits.
• Pumped storage for optimal integrate operation of grid
• Least operational and maintenance cost
• Additional benefits of Flood control, Tourism, fishery.
• Well recognized for obtaining financial support.

WEAKNESS OF HYDRO POWER

• Mainly depends on rainfall/snowmelt.

• Run of river not for peaking
• High capital intensive.
• Remotely located
• Gestation period is very large.
• Relatively smaller units.
• Nonstandard occurrence.

OPPORTUNITIES OF HYDRO POWER

• Vast potential untapped

• Requirement for power peaking
• Greater concern towards increasing pollutions on land, water and in air causes
leading inclination towards hydro
• Depletion of fossil fuels.

THREATS OF HYDRO POWER

• Ambitious plan for thermal/nuclear programme for power.

• Growing concern of environment.
• Prone to natural calamities.
• Submergence of land and displacement of population
• Apprehension on seismic disturbance
• Over emphasis of other renewable energy sources development.

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF HYDRO- ELECTRIC POWER PLANT

In hydroelectric power plants the potential energy of water due to its high location is
converted into electrical energy. The total power generation capacity of the
hydroelectric power plants depends on the head of water and volume of water
flowing towards the water turbine. The water flowing in the river possesses two type
of energy:

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• The kinetic energy due to flow of water and • Potential energy due to the height of
water.

In hydroelectric power and potential energy of water is utilized to generate

electricity. The formula for total power that can be generated from water in
hydroelectric power plant due to its height is given

P= q*h*g Where,

“p” is the power produced in “watt”

“Q” is the rate of flow of water which in cubic meter/second

“h”= height of water which is measured in “meter” It’s also head of water. The
difference between source of water (from where water is taken) and the water’s
outflow (where the water is used to generate electricity, it is the place near the
turbines).

“g” is the gravity constant 9.81 m/second square.

The formula clearly shows that the total power that can be generated from the
hydroelectric power plants depends on these factors.

a) The flow rate of water or volume of flow of water and

b) Height or head of water.
c) More the volume of water and
d) More the head of water more is the power produced in the hydroelectric power
plant.

To obtain the high head of water the reservoir of water should as high as
possible and power generation unit should be as low as possible. The maximum
height of reservoir of water is fixed by natural factors like the height of river bed, the
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amount of water and other environmental factors. The location of the power
generation unit can be adjusted as per the total amount of power that is to be
generated. Usually the power generation unit is constructed at levels lower than
ground level so as to get the maximum head of water.

The total flow rate of water can be adjusted through the pen stock as per the
requirements. If more power is to be generated more water can be allowed to flow
through it.

COMPONENTS OF HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANTS

Hydroelectric power plant requires various components for generating electrical

power. Some of the major components in hydroelectric power plants are: Reservoirs,
Dam, Trash Rack, Fore bay, Surge Tank, Penstock, Spillway, Prime Mover and
Generator, Draft Tube. The functions of all major components are discussed.

The basic requirement of a hydroelectric power station is a reservoir where large

quantity of water is stored during rainy season and used during the dry season. The
reservoir is built by constructing a dam across the river. The water from the
reservoir is drawn by the fore bay through an open canal or tunnel. The water from
the fore bay is supplied to the water prime mover through the penstock which is
located at the much lower level than the height of the water in the reservoir. Thus
potential energy of water stored in reservoir is converted into kinetic energy and
made to rotate the turbine. Turbine shaft is connected to synchronous generator or
alternator for generating electricity. This generated power is stepped up using step-
up transformer and delivered to load centers or grid. The regulation of water flow to
the turbine depending on the electrical load demand is carried out by the governor
system.

Some of the components of hydroelectric power plants and their functions are given
below:

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WATER RESERVOIR

The function or purpose of reservoir is to store the water during rainy season and
supply the same during dry season. This is in simple, water storage area. The water
reservoir is the place behind the dam where water is stored. The water in the
reservoir is located higher than the rest of the dam structure. The height of water in
the reservoir decides how much potential energy the water possesses. The higher
the height of water, the more its potential energy. The high position of water in the
reservoir also enables it to move downwards effortlessly. The height of water in the
reservoir is higher than the natural height of water flowing in the river, so it is
considered to have an altered equilibrium.

This also helps to increase the overall potential energy of water, which helps
ultimately produce more electricity in the power generation unit.

DAM

The function of dam is to increase the height of the water level (increase in the
potential energy) behind it which ultimately increases the reservoir capacity. The
dam also helps in increasing the working head of the power plant. Dams are
generally built to provide necessary head to the power plant.

TRASH RACK

The water intake from the dam or from the fore bay is provided with trash rack. The
main function of trash rack is to prevent the entry of any debris which may damage
the wicket gates and turbine runners or choke-up the nozzles of impulse turbine.
During winter season when water forms ice, to prevent the ice from clinging to the
trash racks, they are often heated electrically. Sometimes air bubbling system is
provided in the vicinity of the trash racks which bring warmer water to the surface
of the trash racks.

FOREBAY

The function of fore bay is to act as regulating reservoir temporarily storing water
when the load on the plant is reduced and to provide water for initial increment of
an increasing load while water in the canal is being accelerated. In many cases, the
canal itself is large enough to absorb the flow variations. In short, forebay is
naturally provided for storage of water to absorb any flow variations if exist. This
can be considered as naturally provided surge tank as it does the function of the
surge tank. The fore bay is always provided with some type of outlet structure to
direct water to penstock depending upon the local conditions.

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SURGE TANK

The main function of surge tank is to reduce the water hammering effect. When
there is a sudden increase of pressure in the penstock which can be due sudden
decrease in the load demand on the generator. When there is sudden decrease in
the load, the turbine gates admitting water to the turbine closes suddenly owing to
the action of the governor. This sudden rise in the pressure in the penstock will
cause the positive water hammering effect. This may lead to burst of the penstock
because of high pressures.

When there is sudden increase in the load, governor valves opens and accepts more
water to the turbine. This results in creation of vacuum in the penstock resulting
into the negative water hammering effect. Therefore the penstock should have to
withstand both positive water hammering effect created due to close of governor
valve and negative water hammering effect due to opening of governor valve. In
order to protect the penstock from these water hammering effects, surge tank is
used in hydroelectric power station. A surge tank is introduced in the system
between dam and the power house nearest. Surge tank is a tank provided to absorb
any water surges caused in the penstock due to sudden loading and unloading of
the generator.When the velocity of the water in the penstock decreases due to
closing of turbine valves, the water level in the surge tank increases and fluctuating
up and down till its motion is damped out by the friction. Similarly when the water
accelerates in the penstock, water is provided by the surge tank for acceleration.
Surge tank water level falls down and fluctuates up and down absorbing the surges.

INTAKE OR CONTROL GATES

These are the gates built on the inside of the dam. The water from reservoir is
released and controlled through these gates. These are called inlet gates because
water enters the power generation unit through these gates. When the control gates
are opened the water flows due to gravity through the penstock and towards the
turbines. The water flowing through the gates possesses potential as well as kinetic
energy.

THE PENSTOCK

The penstock is the long pipe or the shaft that carries the water flowing from the
reservoir towards the power generation unit, comprised of the turbines and
generator. The water in the penstock possesses kinetic energy due to its motion and
potential energy due to its height. The total amount of power generated in the
hydroelectric power plant depends on the height of the water reservoir and the
amount of water flowing through the penstock. The amount of water flowing
through the penstock is controlled by the control gates.

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SPILLWAY

The function of spillway is to provide safety of the dam. Spillway should have the
capacity to discharge major floods without damage to the dam and at the same time
keeps the reservoir levels below some predetermined maximum level.

POWER HOUSE

A power house consists of two main parts, a sub-structure to support the hydraulic
and electrical equipment and a superstructure to house and protect this equipment.

The superstructure of most power plants is the buildings that house all the
operating equipment. The generating unit and the exciter is located in the ground
floor. The turbines which rotate on vertical axis are placed below the floor level
while those rotating on a horizontal axis are placed on the ground floor alongside of
the generator.

WATER TURBINES

Water flowing from the penstock is allowed to enter the power generation unit,
which houses the turbine and the generator. When water falls on the blades of the
turbine the kinetic and potential energy of water is converted into the rotational
motion of the blades of the turbine. The rotating blades cause the shaft of the
turbine to also rotate. The turbine shaft is enclosed inside the generator. In most
hydroelectric power plants there is more than one power generation unit.

There is large difference in height between the level of turbine and level of water in
the reservoir. This difference in height, also known as the head of water, decides the
total amount of power that can be generated in the hydroelectric power plant.

There are various types of water turbines such as Kaplan turbine, Francis turbine,
Pelton wheels etc. The type of turbine used in the hydroelectric power plant depends
on the height of the reservoir, quantity of water and the total power generation
capacity.

QUESTIONS FOR PRACTICE

1. What do you mean by Hydro Power?

2. With a neat diagram explain the working principle of a Hydro Electric Power
Plant.
3. What are the components of a Hydroelectric Power Plant? Explain each one of
them.
4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of a Hydro Electric Power Plant?
5. What are the applications of a Hydro Electric Power Plant?

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NUCLEAR POWER PLANT

INTRODUCTION OF THE TOPIC: NUCLEAR POWER PLANT:-

WHY? NUCLEAR POWER PLANT:

In previous chapters, we studied how electricity produced with the help of water &
coal (known as Hydro & Thermal Power Plant). But, now a day’s our population as
well as industrial sector increases, it means that demand of electrical power
increases day by day. To full fill this demand water & coal is of limited edition, so we
required searching newly source of energy for production & fulfilment of electrical
demand.

To overcome the above mentioned problem, nuclear energy is a best solution to

produce huge amount of electrical energy. With the fission process, we have to
produce this energy. This topic is similar to thermal
power plant, in thermal power, coal is used to produce heat energy on the other
hand in nuclear heat energy is produced with fission process of uranium, thorium &
plutonium.

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DEFINITION OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANT:

The Power Plant which uses nuclear energy of radioactive material (Uranium or
Thorium) converted into Electrical Energy is known as Nuclear Power Plant.

BASIC PRINCIPAL OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANT:

Every power plant has its own basic principal, on the basis of this the plant works.
The Basic Principal of Nuclear Power Plant is given below:

CE↔HE ↔KE ↔ME ↔EE

As we know that, the freely moving neutrons bombarded with radioactive material
(U235 or Th232) the heat energy produced, with the help of this heat energy &
water a steam produced at high pressure & temperature. High pressure steam
passes towards turbine where KE is converted to ME. We know that, turbine &
generator are mechanically coupled through this combination an Electrical Energy
is produced in Nuclear Power Plant.

LIST OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANT IN MAHARASHTRA & INDIA WITH THEIR

INSTALLED CAPACITIES:

1. State the nuclear power plant in Maharashtra with their installed capacity?
2. State the nuclear power plant in India with their installed capacities?
3. List any FOUR nuclear power stations in India with their generating capacity?
4. List out any TWO nuclear power stations in India with Capacity.
5. State locations of any four nuclear power plants in India.

FACTORS GOVERNING SELECTION OF SITE FOR THE NUCLEAR POWER

PLANT

1. Availability of water:sufficient supply of neutral water is obvious for generating

steam & cooling purposes in nuclear power station.
2. Disposal of Waste: The wastes of nuclear power station are radioactive and may
cause severe health hazards. Because of this, special care to be taken during
disposal of wastes of nuclear power plant. The wastes must be buried in sufficient
deep from earth level or these must be disposed off in sea quite away from the sea
share.
3. Distance from Populated Area: As there is always a probability of radioactivity,
it is always preferable to locate a nuclear station sufficiently away from populated
area.
4. Transportation Facilities: During commissioning period, heavy equipment to be
erected, which to be transported from manufacturer site.So good railways and road
ways availabilities are required.
5. Skilled Person Requirement: For availability of skilled manpower to run &
handle the plant also good public transport should also be present at the site.

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6. Near to Load Centre: As we know that generating stations are far away from
thickly populated area, so to reduce the transmission & distribution losses the plant
should located near to load centre.
7. Storage of Nuclear Material: the nuclear materials are radioactive, which are
dangerous to health to overcome this drawback a separate arrangement provided for
storage of material.
8. Geographical Condition: the radioactive material are very dangerous to human
health & all living organisms, if due to earthquake chances occurs to blast the
reactors to avoided this the area should be free from earthquake.

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NUCLEAR FUELS:

Q.1) what are the different fuels used in nuclear power plant? Write in short?
Q.2) state any two fuels used in nuclear power plant?

In Nuclear Power Plant for the Production of heat energy Uranium, thorium &
plutonium fuels are used.

A. URANIUM & ITS PROPERTIES:

Atomic Number: 92
Melting Point: 1408 K (1135°C or 2075°F)
Boiling Point: 4404 K (4131°C or 7468°F)
Uranium is a very important element because it provides us with
nuclear fuel used to generate electricity in nuclear power stations.
Naturally occurring uranium consists of 99% uranium-238 and 1%
uranium-235. Uranium-235 is the only naturally occurring fissionable
fuel (a fuel that can sustain a chain reaction).
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B. NATURAL URANIUM: it consists of 0.714% of & 99.28% .

C. ENRICHED URANIUM: The Process used to increase the percentage of 235-U is
known as enrichment. This will help us to maintain chain reaction. Normally it
contains higher percentages (3 to 4%) of 235-U.

PLUTONIUM: Due to the absorption of neutrons without fusion in & the plutonium
is formed. Atomic Number: 94,Melting point: 641 °C, Boiling point: 3232 °C

D. URANIUM OXIDE:it is also formed due to enrichment process, but it is in brittle

& produced in the form of powder.

E. URANIUM CARBIDE: this material is not economical in use, but it has very good
properties to use as nuclear fuel.

F. THORIUM & ITS PROPERTIES:

Atomic Number: 90
Melting Point: 1750 0c
Boiling Point: 4790 0c
A weakly radioactive, silvery metal. Before it uses of Thorium first up all converted
into Thorium is weakly radioactive: all its known isotopes are unstable, with the six
naturally occurring ones (thorium-227, 228, 230, 231, 232, and 234). India and
China are in the process of developing nuclear power plants with thorium reactors,
but this is still a very new technology. Thorium has higher cost that’s why it is not
popular.

SCHEMATIC ARRANGEMENT OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANT

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1. Explain working of nuclear power plant with block diagram?

2. Draw the schematic arrangement of the typical nuclear power plant and
state the function of reflector?

The above figure shows, the schematic arrangement of nuclear power plant. Every
nuclear power plant consists of following main parts, which are mentioned below:
1. Nuclear Reactor
2. Heat Exchanger
3. Steam Turbine
4. Condenser & Cooling Tower
5. Feed Water Heater
The nuclear reactor function is to produce heat at high temperature. For producing
heat the reactor uses, nuclear fuel these are uranium or thorium etc. when the
slowly moving neutrons hits the nuclear fuel it produces heat. This heat passes to
the heat exchanger; other input to this heat exchanger is heated water. The water is
heated with the help of feed water heater. The main function of heat exchanger is to
produce steam at high pressure. This high pressure steam passes to the steam
turbine. When this steam flow towards turbine it starts rotating, the turbine &
alternator are coupled mechanically. Simultaneously alternator starts rotating and
the electrical power produced. The exhaust hot steam is passes to the condenser,
where it is condensed by using cooling tower, and it is again passing to the heat
exchanger through feed water heater. This process is continued.

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MAIN PARTS OF REACTORS AND THEIR FUNCTION:

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MAIN PARTS & ITS EXPLANATION OF NUCLEAR REACTOR:

1. Nuclear Fuels.
2. Moderator.
3. Control rods.
4. Reflectors
5. Shielding
6. Reactor vessel
7. Heat Exchanger
8. Coolant
9. Turbine, 10. Condenser, 11. Cooling Tower,12. Water Treatment Chamber.
1. Nuclear Fuel:

In Nuclear Power Plant the fuels used are, or or . Out of the three fuel any one of the
fuel used in nuclear power plant. The fuel is required in nuclear power plant to
produce a huge amount of heat energy. The fuel are inserted in fuel rod, these fuel
rods are bombarded with slow moving neutrons. Separate provision provided for
bombarded or hits the neutron to the fuel rod, this device is known as neutron
bombardment device.

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2. Moderator:

Fig: Arrangement of Moderator in Nuclear Reactor

Q.1) Give four properties of a good moderator for nuclear reaction control?
In nuclear power plant, moderator is a device, of rod shaped. Moderator is
placed near the nuclear fuel rod. The main function of moderator in nuclear power
plant is reduce the speed of neutrons (neutron at slower speed is required to produce
fission) & increases the fission processes. Moderator rod is made up of graphite or
heavy water or beryllium material.

3. Control Rods:

In nuclear power plant, the control rods are placed in between nuclear fuel rod,
moderator and then control rod. These control rods are operated either
automatically or manually.(To start or stop the chain reaction). In nuclear power
plant the main function of control rod is to control the chain reaction. If the control
rod is inserted then it absorbs the freely moving neutrons & stop the chain reaction,
if it is no inserted chain reaction is in process, means chain reaction continued. The
steady rate or to stop the chain reaction is maintained through control rods. The
control rods are made up of cadmium, boron (alloyed with steel or aluminium).

Q.1) Explain the purpose of shielding & reflector in nuclear power plant?
Q.2) State the purpose of reflector in nuclear power plant?

4. Reflector:

Before shielding, the reflector is placed. The reflector is used to surround the
reactor core. The reflector will also help to bounce the escaping neutrons back to
the reactor core & it conserve the nuclear fuel.

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5.Shielding:

Shielding is the also important part of nuclear power plant, shielding is in other
words protecting. In nuclear reactor, first one is nuclear fuel rod then moderator,
control rod & reflector. Through this shielding is provided. When the chain reaction
starts, heat energy start to produce. During this period lots of radiation or rays are
produced, these are very harmful; to avoid this shielding is provided in reactor.

6. Reactor vessel:

After shielding the next layer is a reactor vessel. This vessel encloses reactor core,
reflector, shielding. It is used to protect complete nuclear reactor. Few holes are
provided in the top portion of reactor vessel to insert control rods & at lower side of
this vessel fuel & moderator assembly are placed.

7. Heat Exchanger:

The main function of heat exchanger in nuclear power plant is the boiled the cold
water and produces steam at high temperature & pressure.
Heat exchanger is used in nuclear power plant, to exchange the heat i.e. it consists
of one input to feed the cold water & output to flow of hot steam. The heat
exchanger receives the heat from reactor, this heat is continuously circulated
through pipe, before it is re-entered to the reactor it is filter. By using this heat a
heat exchanger boils the cold water produces steam at high temperature &
Pressure. Further this steam passes to the steam turbine for generation of electrical
power.

8. Coolant:

Q.1) Write the function of coolant in nuclear power plant?

The coolant becomes a cold metal. In coolant the gases are used like carbon dioxide,
air, hydrogen etc. the heats from the heat exchanger are re-circulated to the reactor
through pump after filtration. During filtrations the unwanted impurities in the
coolant are removed.

9. Turbine:

We know that, the turbine is a mechanical device and it is mechanically coupled

with alternator. In case of nuclear power plant turbine receives steam from heat
exchange at high pressure, and it rotates at high speed then alternator also rotates,
this way electrical power produced. The exhaust steam from turbine passes to
condenser for further use.

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10. Condenser:

The condenser receives an exhaust hot steam from turbine; with the help of water it
is cooled. Water taken from available water sources e.g. river and is filtered in water
treatment plant. This water is re-circulated to heat exchanger through feed water
heater & Pump.

11. Cooling Tower:

The cooling towers are used to convert the hot water or steam exhausted from
turbine into normal water. That is, its temperature decreases at normal
temperature.

12. Water treatment chamber:

The water treatment chamber provides filter water to the cooling tower, condenser
through available water source. It also reduces unwanted impurities in the stored
water.

Types of Nuclear Reactor:

The nuclear reactors are classified into four types. These are mentioned below:
1. Pressurised Water Reactor (PWR).
2. Boiling Water Reactor (BWR).
3. Advanced Gas Cooled Reactor (AGCR).
4. Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR).

1. Pressurised Water Reactor (PWR).

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Q.1) Explain working of pressurised water nuclear reactor?

Ans-In PWR the enriched uranium fuel is used. When the chain reaction starts the
reactor core produces heat energy at high temperature. This produced heat energy
passes to the heat exchanger. We have passed the hot metal to the heat exchanger,
this metal is also radioactive, and that’s why heat exchanger also requires shielding.
The pressure equalizer uses to maintain the pressure of hot metal. In heat
exchanger, other side tubes of water are inserted; this will help us to boil the water
& Produces steam at high pressure. This steam passes to the steam turbine for the
generation of electrical energy with the help of alternator. After that the exhausted
steam passes to the condenser this process is continued.

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2. Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)

Q.1) Explain working of boiler water nuclear reactor?

Ans-In BWR, the enriched uranium fuel is used in reactor. In this type of reactor
water is directly passes to the bottom of reactor core. When the chain reaction
starts, the reactor core produces a heat energy, which is help full to boiled the water
& produced steam at high temperature & Pressure. This steam passes to the
turbine, through turbine-alternator combination electrical power produced. The
exhausted steam from the steam turbine passes to the condenser. Where it is
condensed, and again passes to the reactor core through pump.

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3. Advanced Gas Cooled Reactor

Q.1) Witha neat diagram, explain the main features of advanced gas cooled
reactor?
Ans- As its name indicates, it is advanced for the PWR & BWR. For the above
mentioned two reactors, we used water for the production of steam. But in case of
advanced gas cooled reactor gas is used. This gas is passes to the heat exchanger,
the heat exchanger receives heat from reactor core, where its temperature increases,
and then it runs the turbine in this way electrical power is produced.
A gas is of inferior quality to water so far as heat transfer properties are
concerned, because of its poor heat transfer qualities; it required large quantity of
gas for circulation. In advanced gas cooled reactor either carbon dioxide or helium
is used as a coolant.

4. Fast Breeder Reactor:

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In fast breeder reactor the fuel used are either enriched uranium or plutonium.
Without using moderator the fuels are kept in fuel blanket. The closed vessel is
surrounded by a fairly thick blanket. The shielding is also provided with boron
material. The core of reactor is cooled by liquid metal.

CONTROL OF NUCLEAR REACTOR:

Q.1) How are nuclear reactor controlled? Explain two different methods in
brief?
As we already studied that, why the control rods are used in the nuclear reactor?
In this point we have to study how the nuclear reactors are controlled.
The nuclear reactors are controlled in two ways:
1. By using control rods.
2. Control through flow of coolant.

1. By using control rods:

Q.1) Explain how nuclear reactor is controller using control rods?

Q.2) Explain the role of control rod in nuclear reactor. State any two materials
for control rod.

We know that, in nuclear reactor uranium or thorium or plutonium materials

are used for generation of heat energy. If a slowly moving neutron hits or
bombarded with this heavy nucleus of nuclear fuel then the chain reaction starts.
Once the chain reaction starts then it is continued. By using control rods, we have
to maintain its rate of flow of neutron or its speed, if the control rod is not used in
the nuclear reactor this process is very dangerous to control. In other words this
process is works like atomic bomb. To avoid this control rods are used in nuclear
reactor. The main function of control rod in nuclear reactor is to absorb the freely
moving neutrons. To absorb these freely moving neutrons from nuclear reactor the
control rods are made up of either boron or cadmium. The diameter of control rod is
8cm. its height is just more than nuclear reactor. The control rods operated either
automatically or manually. If it is operated automatically then sensors are used,
these sensors give signals to the control rods. The rods are operated in up & down
direction, if it in up then more heat generated & if it is down then it control the
reaction i.e. rate of heat generated is minimum.

2. Control through flow of coolant:

We know that, the heat is generated in nuclear reactor. This heat is passes to the
heat exchanger for the conversion of boiled water into steam. So the coolant is used

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 POWER PLANT LECTURE NOTES

in the nuclear reactor to remove the heat generated. As the operating temperature of
nuclear reactor fluid coolant is used of higher thermal conductivity. There are
different methods of nuclear reactor cooling:
1. Annular ducts surrounding and coolant is passed is passed through them.
2. Completely immerse the reactor fuel element in coolant bath.
3. A fluid mixture of fuel & moderator is circulated through the reactor.

Nuclear Waste Management:

Q.1) Explain how nuclear waste is disposed?

Q.2) State the types of radioactive waste generated in a nuclear power station.
Explain the method employed for their disposal?
Q.3) how will you dispose nuclear waste? Explain the method for solid, liquid
& gaseous waste?

In Second World War, we know that the real condition of Japanese city like
Hiroshima & Nagasaki. For consider this example, you know the idea of the:
radioactivity material or how it is dangerous. The same material we have to use in
nuclear reactor, every part of nuclear fuel cycle produces radioactive waste. These
wastes are very dangerous to human health & it handling very carefully. For e.g.
how much electricity generated through nuclear power plant out of that 5% is cost
of wastage. Based on this means the level of radioactivity material or radiations,
nuclear waste management is classified into three types:
Classification of nuclear (Radioactive) Wastage:
1. Low Level Waste (LLW)
2. Intermediate Level Waste (ILW)
3. High Level Wastage (HLW)

1. LLW (Low Level Waste):

In case of low level waste, the (% Content of Radioactivity) radioactive level is

very less. Normally, this type of waste comes from industries, hospitals, small
nuclear plant. At the time of handling & transport the low level waste, it does not
require shielding. The low level waste buried in land with suitable depth at the time
of disposal.

2. ILW (Intermediate Level Waste):

The percentage of radioactivity is higher as compared with low level waste. At the
time of handling & transportation shielding is required because, the produce
radioactive are very difficult. It means that it’s affected to human health. At the time
of ILW disposal first up all it is placed in concrete container, after that it is well
sealed. Finally the ILW is buried in underground facility.

3. HLW (High Level Waste):

As compared with LLW & ILW, the HLW is very dangerous to handling as well as it
is directly affected to human health. Most of accidents in nuclear power plants are

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 POWER PLANT LECTURE NOTES

occurred due to this HLW. At the time of handling it requires shielding as well as
cooling. The HLW mainly comes from reprocessing of nuclear fuel in the reactor.
The HLW is obtained in liquid form & the heat % is very high. There are three ways
to dispose the HLW.

i. With the help of Storage Tank:

The agitator is placed, which is rotating type. In that agitator the high
temperature liquid waste is kept. Due to its continuous rotation, & outer cooling, it
will help to its high temperature is converter into its normal value. For the
protection & leak proof purpose the closed vessel surrounded by stainless steel tank
& concrete layer. Whenever the tank is full, it will be well sealed & buried
underground.

ii. Disposal through Deep Well Injection:

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 POWER PLANT LECTURE NOTES

In this method, first up all the high temperature liquid HLW is kept in storage tank.
Then with the help of pumps these liquid HLW is sent to ground at high pressure. Its
depth is normally 3500 to 16000 feet.

iii. Vitrification Process:

We know that, the HLW is liquid form & it is difficult to handling and
disposal. To overcome this drawback in vitrification process first up all it is
converted into solid form (the liquid form of HLW is converted into solid form is
known as vitrification). Whenever the liquid HLW is kept with steel container, it is
mixed with glass forming material through heating process. Due to this a solid glass
is formed which is put in steel container, after that it is surrounded by reinforced
concrete. These tanks are now ready for disposal.
There are two ways of disposing these solid waste tanks:
1. It can be kept in trench deep underground.
2. It can be suspended in sea beads.

Advantages of Nuclear Power Station:

1. A nuclear power station occupies much smaller space compared to other
conventional power station of same capacity.
2. This station does not require plenty of water; hence it is not essential to
construct plant near natural source of water.
3. This also does not required huge quantity of fuel; for e.g. 1 kg of uranium
produces a heat which is equivalent to 4300 tonnes of coal.
4. It is possible to locate the plant near to load center
5. If bulk power is produced it is economical.
6. Clean operation, no ash is produced.
7. Area required is very less.
8. Independent of geographical conditions.
9. Saving of natural resources such as coal, oil, gas etc.

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 POWER PLANT LECTURE NOTES

Disadvantages of Nuclear Power Plant

1. The fuel is not easily available and it is very costly.
2. Initial cost for constructing nuclear power station is quite high.
3. Erection and commissioning of this plant is much complicated.
4. The fission by products is radioactive in nature, and it may cause high
radioactive pollution.
5. The maintenance cost is higher and the man power required to run a nuclear
power plant is quite higher since specialty trained people are required.
6. Sudden fluctuation of load cannot be met up efficiently by nuclear plant.
7. It is very big problem for disposal of this by products. It can only be disposed
deep inside ground or in a sea away from sea share.
8. Enrichment technology is essential for fuel processing & fabrication.
9. Maintenance cost is very high.
10. Waste disposal is problematic.
11. For variable load it is not suitable.
12. Construction is complicated.

QUESTION FOR PRACTICE

1. Write down the advantages and disadvantages of Nuclear Power Plant.

2. Discuss about the type of Nuclear Wastes &What are the processes for the
disposal of such Wastes? Explain.
3. With neat sketches Describe the working procedure of PWR & BWR?
4. What are the components of a Nuclear Power Plant? Explain each one of
them.
5. What do you mean by Nuclear Fission & Nuclear Fusion reactions?
6. Explain the working of a Nuclear Power Plant with Block diagram?
7. What are the governing conditions for setting up of a Nuclear Power Plant?

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 POWER PLANT ENGINEERING LECTURE NOTES

Prepared By Er. Devi Prasad Acharya, (Lecturer in Mechanical Engg. , OSME, Keonjhar) Page 27
 UNIT-1

THERMAL POWER STATIONS

Introduction
➢ Thermal energy is the major source of power generation in India. More than 60% of
electric power is produced by steam plants in India. India has large deposit of coal
(about 170 billion tonnes), 5th largest in world. Indian coals are classified as A-G grade
coals.
➢ In Steam power plants, the heat of combustion of fossil fuels is utilized by the boilers
to raise steam at high pressure and temperature. The steam so produced is used in
driving the steam turbines or sometimes steam engines couples to generators and thus
in generating electrical energy.
➢ Steam turbines or steam engines used in steam power plants not only act as prime
movers but also as drives for auxiliary equipment, such as pumps, stokers fans etc.
➢ Steam power plants may be installed either to generate electrical energy only or
generate electrical energy along with generation of steam for industrial purposes such
as in paper mills, textile mills, sugar mills and refineries, chemical works, plastic
manufacture, food manufacture etc.
➢ The steam for process purposes is extracted from a certain section of turbine and the
remaining steam is allowed to expand in the turbine. Alternatively the exhaust steam
may be used for process purposes.
➢ Thermal stations can be private industrial plants and central station.

Advantages And Disadvantages Of A Thermal Power Plant

Advantages:
▪ Less initial cost as compared to other generating stations.

▪ It requires less land as compared to hydro power plant.

▪ The fuel (i.e. coal) is cheaper.

▪ The cost of generation is lesser than that of diesel power plants.

Disadvantages:
▪ It pollutes the atmosphere due to the production of large amount of smoke. This is one of
the causes of global warming.

▪ The overall efficiency of a thermal power station is low (less than 30%).

▪ Requires long time for errection and put into action.

▪ Costlier in operating in comparison with that of Hydro and Nuclear power plants.

▪ Requirement of water in huge quantity.

Figure: Schematic diagram of a Thermal power plant.

Selection of site for thermal power plant

• Nearness to the load centre: The power plant should be as near as possible to the load
centre to the centre of load .So that the transmission cost and losses are minimum. This
factor is most important when Dc supply system is adopted. However in the case of AC
supply when transformation of energy from lower voltage to higher voltage and vice versa
is possible power plants can be erected at places other than that of load provided other
conditions are favorable.

• Water resources: For the construction and operating of power plant large volumes of
water are required for the following reasons
(i) To raise the steam in boiler.
(ii) For cooling purpose such as in condensers
(iii) As a carrying medium such as disposal of ash.
(iv) For drinking purposes.
This could be supplied from either rivers or underground water resources. Therefore
having enough water supplies in defined vicinity can be a factor in the selection of the site.
• Availability of Coal: Huge amount of coal is required for raising the steam. Since the
government policy is to use the only low grade coal with 30 to 40 % ash content for power
generation purposes, the steam power plants should be located near the coal mines to avoid
the transport of coal & ash.

• Land Requirement: The land is required not only for setting up the plant but for other
purposes also such as staff colony, coal storage, ash disposal etc.
 Eg: For 2000MW plant, the land requirement may be of the order of 200-250 acres. As the
cost of the land adds up to the final cost of the plant, it should be available at a reasonable
price. Land should be available for future extension.

• Transportation Facilities: The facilities must be available for transportation of

heavy equipment and fuels e.g near railway station.

• Labour supplies: Skilled and unskilled laborers should be available at reasonable

rates near the site of the plant.
• Ash Disposal: Ash is the main waste product of the steam power plant and with low
grade coal, it may be 3.5 tones per day , some suitable means for disposal of ash
should be though of. It may be purchased by building contractors, or it can be used
for brick making near the plant site. If the site is near the coal mine it can be dumped
into the disused mines. In case of site located near a river,sea or lake ash can be
dumped into it.
• Distance from populated area: The continuous burning of coal at the power station
Produces smoke, fumes and ash which pollute the surrounding area. Such a pollution
due to smoke is dangerous for the people living around the area. Hence, the site of a
plant should be at a considerable distance from the populated area.

Major Components of a Thermal Power Plant

• Coal Handling Plant

• Pulverizing Plant

• Draft or Draught fan

• Boiler

• Ash Handling Plant

• Turbine and Generator

• Condenser

• Cooling Tower And Ponds

• Feed Water Heater

• Economiser
• Super heater and Reheater

• Air pre heater

• Alternator with Exciter

• Protection and control equipment

• Instrumentation

BOILER

❖ A boiler (or steam generator) is a closed vessel in which water, under pressure , is
converted into steam. The heat is transferred to the boiler by all three modes of heat
transfer i.e. conduction ,convection and radiation.

❖ Major types of boilers are: (i) fire tube boiler and (ii) water tube boiler

❖ Generally water tube boilers are used for electric power stations.

Fire Tube Boiler

• The boiler is named so because the products of combustion pass through the tubes which
are surrounded by water.

• Depending on whether the tube is vertical or horizontal the fire tube boiler is divided
into two types

1. Vertical tube boiler

2. Horizontal tube boiler

• A fire tube boiler is simple ,compact and rugged in construction. Its initial cost is low.

• Water being more and circulation being poor they cannot meet quickly to changes in steam
demand.

• As water and steam ,both are in the same shell, higher pressure of steam are not possible ,
the maximum pressure which can be had is 17.5 kg/cm2 with a capacity of 15,000kg of
steam per hour.
• For the same output the outer shell of a fire tube boiler is much larger than that of a water
tube boiler.

• In the event of a sudden and major tube failure. Steam explosions may be caused in the
furnace due to rush of high pressure water into the hot combustion chamber which may
generate large quantities of steam in the furnace.

• Fire tube boilers use is therefore limited to low cost small size and low pressure plants.

Figure : Fire Tube Boiler

Water Tube Boilers

• In this boiler, the water flows inside the tubes and hot gases flow outside the tube .

• Water tube boiler are classified as

1. Vertical tube boiler

2. Horizontal tube boiler

3. Inclined tube boiler

• The circulation of water in the boiler is may be natural or forced.

• For Central steam power plants large capacity of water tube boilers are used.

• The tubes are always external to the drum they can be built in smaller size and therefore
withstand high pressure.

• The boiler drum contains both steam and water, the former being trapped from the top of
the drum where the highest concentration of dry steam exists.
Figure :Water tube bolier

SUPERHEATER AND REHEATERS

• The function of the super heater is to remove the last trash of moisture from the saturated
steam leaving the boiler tubes and also increases its temperature above the saturation
temperature.
• For this purpose the heat of the combustion gases from the furnace is utilized.
• Super heated steam is that steam which contains more heat than the saturated steam at the
same pressure. The additional heat provide more energy to the turbine hence power out put
is more.

• Superheated steam causes lesser erosion of the turbine blades and can be transmitted for
longer distance with little heat loss

• A superheater may be convention type, radiant type or combination. However ,convention
superheaters are more commonly used.








Figure : Functions of superheater

Figure: Superheaters

REHEATER

• In addition to super heater modern boiler has reheater also. The function of the reaheater is
to superheat the partly expanded steam from the turbine, this ensure that the steam remain
dry through the last stage of the turbine.

• A reheater may be convention type, radiant type or combination.

Feed Water Heaters: These heaters are used to heat the feed water by means of blend steam
before it is supplied to the boiler. Necessity of heating feed waterbefore feeding it back to the
boiler arises due to the following reasons.

• Feed Water heating improve overall efficiency.

• The dissolved oxygen which would otherwise cause boiler corrosion are removed in the
feed water heater.

• Thermal stresses due to cold water entering the boiler drum are avoided.

• Quantity of steam produced by the boiler is increased.

• Some other impurities carried by steam and condensate, due to corrosion in boiler
and condenser, are precipitated outside the boiler.

Figure: Water steam flow diagram

ECONOMIZER

• Boilers are provided with economizer and air pre-heaters to recover heat from the flue
gases. An increase of about 20% in boiler efficiency is achieved by providing both
economizer and air pre-heaters.

• Economizer alone gives only 10-12% efficiency increase, causes saving in fuel
consumption 5-15 %. The feed water from the high pressure heaters enters the
economizer and picks up heat from the flue gases after the low temperature super
heater.

• Economizer can be classified as an inline or staggered arrangement based on the type of

tube arrangement.

• For pressure of 70 Kg/cm2 or more economizer becomes a necessity.

• The tubes are arranged in parallel continuous loops. 

• Feed water flows through the tubes and the flue gases outside the tubes across them.

The feed water should be sufficiently pure not to cause forming of scales and cause

internal corrosion and under boiler pressure. 

• The temperature of the feed water entering the economizer should be high enough so

that moister from the flue gases does not condense on the economizer tubes.


AIR PREHEATERS

• After the flue gases leave economizer, some further heat can be extracted from them
and is used to heat the incoming air for combustion.
• Air preheaters may be of following types:

➢ Plate type

➢ Tubular type

➢ Regenerative type

• Cooling of flue gases by 200increase the efficiency of the plant by 1%.

• The use of air preheaters is more economical with pulverized fuel boilers because the
temperature of flue gases going out is sufficiently large and high air temperatures (250 to
3500 C) is always desirable for better combustion.

• Air preheaters should have high thermal efficiency, reliability of operation, less
maintance charges, should occupy small space, should be reasonable in initial cost and
should be accessible.

• In order to avoid corrosion of the air preheaters, the flue gases should not be cooled below
the dew point.
Figure : Air Preheater

STEAM TURBINES

• Steam entering from a small opening attains a very high velocity.

• The velocity attained during expansion depends on the initial and final content of the
steam.
• The difference in initial and final heat content represent the heat energy to be converted to
kinetic energy.

There are two types of steam turbines:

1)Impluse turbine and

2)Reaction Turbine

Impuse Turbine:

➢ In this turbine there are alternate rows of moving and fixed blades. The moving blades are
mounted on the shaft and fixed blades are fixed to the casing of the turbine.

➢ A set of fixed nozzle is provided and steam is passed through these nozzles. The P.E in steam
due to pressure and internal energy is converted to K.E. The steam comes out of the nozzles
with very high velocity and impinges on the rotor blades.

➢ The direction of steam flow changes without changing its pressure.

➢ Thus due to the change in momentum the turbine rotor starts rotating.
Reaction Turbine:
➢ Reaction turbine have no nozzles. These two have alternate rows of moving and fixed
blades. The moving blades are mounted on shaft, while fixed blades are fixed in
casing of turbine.
➢ When high pressure steam passes through fixed blades, then steam pressure drops
down and velocity of steam increases.
➢ As steam passes over moving blades, the steam expands and imparts energy,resulting
in reduction in pressure and velocity of steam.

Note:Turbines used in thermal power stations are Impuse, Reaction or combined. Generally
multistage turbines are used. H.P steam after doing work in the H.P stage passes over
l.P stage . more workis extracted thereby, with consequent increase in thermal
efficiency.

Compounding of steam turbines:

Single stage turbines are of low efficiency.

In compounding, a number of rotors are connected or keyed to the same shaft

Two types of compounding are used: velocity compounding and pressure compounding

Governing of steam turbines:

Governing signifies the process of controlling the volume of steam to meet the load
fluctuation.

Figure : Steam Turbines

CONDENSERS

The function of the condenser is to condense the steam exiting the turbine. The condenser
helps maintain low pressure at the exhaust.

Two types of condensers are used.

Table : Jet and Surface Condensers

Jet condenser (contact type) Surface condenser (non-contact type)

Exhaust steam mixes with cooling water. Steam and water do not mix.

Temperature of the condensate and cooling Condensate temperature higher than the
water is same while leaving the condenser. cooling water temperature at outlet.

Condensate cannot be recovered. Condensate recovered is fed back to the boiler.

Heat exchanged by direct conduction Heat transfer through convection.

Low initial cost High initial cost.

High power required for pumping water. Condensate is not wasted so pumping power is
less.

Figure: Surface Condenser

Figure: Surface Condenser

Figure : Jet Condenser

DEAERATORS

➢ A deaerator is a device that is widely used for the removal of oxygen and other dissolved
gases from the feedwater to steam-generating boilers.
➢ In particular, dissolved oxygen in boiler feedwaters will cause serious corrosion damage
in steam systems by attaching to the walls of metal piping and other metallic equipment
and forming oxides (rust).

➢ There are two basic types of deaerators,

1. the tray-type an
2. the spray-type
➢ The tray-type (also called the cascade-type) includes a vertical domed deaeration
section mounted on top of a horizontal cylindrical vessel which serves as the
deaerated boiler feedwater storage tank.

➢ The spray-type consists only of a horizontal (or vertical) cylindrical vessel which serves
as both the deaeration section and the boiler feedwater storage tank.
COOLING TOWERS AND SPRAY PONDS

• Condensers need huge quantity of water to condense the steam.

• Water is led into the plants by means of circulating water pumps and after passing
through the condenser is discharged back into the river.

• If such a source is not available closed cooling water circuit is used where the warm
water coming out of the condenser is cooled and reused.

• In such cases ponds and cooling towers are used where the water loses heat to the
atmosphere.
Figure : Cooling Tower

Figure : Cooling Towers

ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS

• An electrostatic precipitator (ESP), or electrostatic air cleaner is a particulate collection

device that removes particles from a flowing gas (such as air) using the force of an
induced electrostatic charge.

• the basic idea of an ESP:

❖ Charging
❖ collecting.
❖ removing
• Every particle either has or can be given a charge—positive or negative.

• we impart a negative charge to all the particles in a gas stream in ESP.

• Then a grounded plate having a positive charge is set up.

• The negatively charged particle would migrate to the grounded collection plate and
be captured.

• The particles would quickly collect on the plate, creating a dust layer. The dust layer
would accumulate until we removed it.

• The structural design and operation of the discharge electrodes (rigid-frame, wires or
plate) and collection electrodes.

❖ tubular type ESP

❖ plate type ESP

• The method of charging

❖ single-stage ESP

❖ two-stage ESP

• The temperature of operation

❖ cold-side ESP

❖ hot-side ESP

• The method of particle removal from collection surfaces

❖ wet ESP

❖ Dry ESP