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A] Operating system
An operating system (OS) is a type of system software that manages computer’s hardware and
software resources. It provides common services for computer programs. An OS acts a link between
the software and the hardware. It controls and keeps a record of the execution of all other programs
that are present in the computer, including application programs and other system software.
The most important tasks performed by the operating system are
1. Process management: - Process management helps OS to create and delete processes. It also
provides mechanisms for synchronization and communication among processes.

2. Memory management: - Memory management module performs the task of allocation and
de-allocation of memory space to programs in need of these resources.

3. File management: - It manages all the file-related activities such as organization storage,
retrieval, naming, sharing, and protection of files.

4. Device Management: Device management keeps tracks of all devices. This module also
responsible for this task is known as the I/O controller. It also performs the task of allocation
and de-allocation of the devices.

5. I/O System Management: One of the main objects of any OS is to hide the peculiarities of
that hardware device from the user.

6. Secondary-Storage Management: Systems have several levels of storage which includes

primary storage, secondary storage, and cache storage. Instructions and data must be stored
in primary storage or cache so that a running program can reference it.

7. Security: - Security module protects the data and information of a computer system against
malware threat and authorized access.

8. Command interpretation: This module is interpreting commands given by the user and acting
system resources to process that commands.

9. Networking: A distributed system is a group of processors which do not share memory,

hardware devices, or a clock. The processors communicate with one another through the
network.

10. Job accounting: Keeping track of time & resource used by various job and users.

11. Communication management: Coordination and assignment of compilers, interpreters, and

another software resource of the various users of the computer systems.

B] Types of Operating Systems

1. Batch Operating System:

The users of a batch operating system do not interact with the computer directly. Each user prepares
his job on an off-line device like punch cards and submits it to the computer operator. To speed up
processing, jobs with similar needs are batched together and run as a group. The programmers leave
their programs with the operator and the operator then sorts the programs with similar requirements
into batches.

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Advantages of Batch Operating System:

• It is very difficult to guess or know the time required by any job to complete. Processors of the
batch systems know how long the job would be when it is in queue
• Multiple users can share the batch systems
• The idle time for batch system is very less
• It is easy to manage large work repeatedly in batch systems

Disadvantages of Batch Operating System:

• The computer operators should be well known with batch systems
• Batch systems are hard to debug
• It is sometime costly
• The other jobs will have to wait for an unknown time if any job fails

Examples of Batch based Operating System: Payroll System, Bank Statements etc.

2. Time-Sharing Operating Systems (also known as Multitasking):

Time-sharing is a technique which enables many people, located at various terminals, to use a
particular computer system at the same time. Time-sharing or multitasking is a logical extension of
multiprogramming. Processor's time which is shared among multiple users simultaneously is termed
as time-sharing.

Multiple jobs are executed by the CPU by switching between them, but the switches occur so
frequently. Thus, the user can receive an immediate response. For example, in a transaction
processing, the processor executes each user program in a short burst or quantum of computation.
That is, if n users are present, then each user can get a time quantum. When the user submits the
command, the response time is in few seconds at most.

The operating system uses CPU scheduling and multiprogramming to provide each user with a small
portion of a time. Computer systems that were designed primarily as batch systems have been
modified to time-sharing systems.

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Advantages of Time-Sharing OS:

• Each task gets an equal opportunity
• Less chances of duplication of software
• CPU idle time can be reduced

Disadvantages of Time-Sharing OS:

• Reliability problem
• One must have to take care of security and integrity of user programs and data
• Data communication problem

Examples of Time-Sharing OSs are: Multics, Unix etc.

3. Distributed Operating System:

Distributed systems use multiple central processors to serve multiple real-time applications and
multiple users. Data processing jobs are distributed among the processors accordingly.

The processors communicate with one another through various communication lines (such as high-
speed buses or telephone lines). These are referred as loosely coupled systems or distributed systems.
Processors in a distributed system may vary in size and function. These processors are referred as
sites, nodes, computers, and so on.

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Advantages of Distributed Operating System:

• Failure of one will not affect the other network communication, as all systems are independent
from each other
• Electronic mail increases the data exchange speed
• Since resources are being shared, computation is highly fast and durable
• Load on host computer reduces
• These systems are easily scalable as many systems can be easily added to the network
• Delay in data processing reduces

Disadvantages of Distributed Operating System:

• Failure of the main network will stop the entire communication
• To establish distributed systems the language which are used are not well defined yet
• These types of systems are not readily available as they are very expensive. Not only that the
underlying software is highly complex and not understood well yet

Examples of Distributed Operating System are- LOCUS etc.

4. Real-Time Operating System:

A real-time system is defined as a data processing system in which the time interval required to
process and respond to inputs is so small that it controls the environment. The time taken by the
system to respond to an input and display of required updated information is termed as the response
time. So in this method, the response time is very less as compared to online processing.

Real-time systems are used when there are rigid time requirements on the operation of a processor or
the flow of data and real-time systems can be used as a control device in a dedicated application. A
real-time operating system must have well-defined, fixed time constraints, otherwise the system will
fail. For example, scientific experiments, medical image systems, industrial control systems, weapon
systems, robots, air traffic control systems, etc. There are two types of real-time operating systems.
• Hard real-time systems
Hard real-time systems guarantee that critical tasks complete on time. In hard real-time systems,
secondary storage is limited or missing and the data is stored in ROM. In these systems, virtual
memory is almost never found.

• Soft real-time systems

Soft real-time systems are less restrictive. A critical real-time task gets priority over other tasks and
retains the priority until it completes. Soft real-time systems have limited utility than hard real-time
systems. For example, multimedia, virtual reality, Advanced Scientific Projects likes undersea
exploration and planetary rovers, etc.

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Advantages of RTOS:
• Maximum Consumption: Maximum utilization of devices and system, thus more output from all
the resources
• Task Shifting: Time assigned for shifting tasks in these systems are very less. For example in
older systems it takes about 10 micro seconds in shifting one task to another and in latest
systems it takes 3 micro seconds.
• Focus on Application: Focus on running applications and less importance to applications which
are in queue.
• Real time operating system in embedded system: Since size of programs is small, RTOS can
also be used in embedded systems like in transport and others.
• Error Free: These types of systems are error free.
• Memory Allocation: Memory allocation is best managed in these types of systems.

Disadvantages of RTOS:
• Limited Tasks: Very few tasks run at the same time and their concentration is very less on few
applications to avoid errors.
• Use heavy system resources: Sometimes the system resources are not so good and they are
expensive as well.
• Complex Algorithms: The algorithms are very complex and difficult for the designer to write on.
• Device driver and interrupt signals: It needs specific device drivers and interrupts signals to
response earliest to interrupts.
• Thread Priority: It is not good to set thread priority as these systems are very less prone to
switching tasks.

Examples of Real-Time Operating Systems are: Scientific experiments, medical imaging systems,
industrial control systems, weapon systems, robots, air traffic control systems, etc.

5. Multiprocessor Systems
A Multiprocessor system consists of several processors that share a common physical memory.
Multiprocessor system provides higher computing power and speed. In multiprocessor system all
processors operate under single operating system. Multiplicity of the processors and how they do act
together are transparent to the others.

Advantages of Multiprocessor Systems:

• Enhanced performance
• Execution of several tasks by different processors concurrently, increases the system's
throughput without speeding up the execution of a single task.
• If possible, system divides task into many subtasks and then these subtasks can be executed in
parallel in different processors. Thereby speeding up the execution of single tasks.

6. Multiprogramming Systems
Sharing the processor, when two or more programs reside in memory at the same time, is referred
as multiprogramming. Multiprogramming assumes a single shared processor. Multiprogramming
increases CPU utilization by organizing jobs so that the CPU always has one to execute.

The following figure shows the memory layout for a multiprogramming system.

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An OS does the following activities related to multiprogramming.

• The operating system keeps several jobs in memory at a time.
• This set of jobs is a subset of the jobs kept in the job pool.
• The operating system picks and begins to execute one of the jobs in the memory.
• Multiprogramming operating systems monitor the state of all active programs and system
resources using memory management programs to ensure that the CPU is never idle, unless
there are no jobs to process.

Advantages
• High and efficient CPU utilization.
• User feels that many programs are allotted CPU almost simultaneously.

Disadvantages
• CPU scheduling is required.
• To accommodate many jobs in memory, memory management is required.

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