TEL 231-APPLIED ELECTRICITY

Engr. T. J. Shima
MODULE 4: INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS METHODS
4.1 Introduction
An electrical device is represented by a circuit diagram or network constructed from series
and parallel arrangements of two-terminal elements. The analysis of the circuit diagram
predicts the performance of the actual device. This module, therefore, introduces some
fundamental methods of network analysis. Included here are Nodal analysis, Mesh-current
analysis, superposition superposition, Thevenin’s theorem, Norton’s theorem, Maximum
power transfer theorem. Before discussing these theorems, some terms are worth defining.

4.2 Basic Concepts and Definitions

The following are some of the common terms encountered in the analysis of electric networks.

(a) A branch of a circuit is a single component such as a resistor or a source.

Occasionally, though, this term is applied to a group of components that carry the same
current (see Figure 4.1(a)).

(b) A node is a connection point between two or more branches. On a circuit diagram, a
node is sometimes indicated by a dot that may be a solder point in the actual circuit
(see Figure 4.1(b)).

(a)
(b)
Figure 4.1: (a) Examples of a branch (b) Examples of a node

(c) A loop is any simple closed path in a circuit (see Figure 4.2(a)).
(d) A mesh is a loop that does not have a closed path in its interior. No components are
inside a mesh (see Figure 4.2(b)).

(a)
(b)
Figure 4.2: (a) Example of a loop (b) Difference between a mesh and a loop

The network in Figure 4.2(a) is a loop and a mesh. In the circuit of Figure 4.2(b), 𝐴𝐵𝐸𝐹 is both
a loop and a mesh, but 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷𝐸𝐹 is a loop but not a mesh.

4.3 Source Transformations

Depending on the type of analysis, a circuit with either no voltage sources or no current
sources may be preferable. Because a circuit may have an undesired type of source, it is

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convenient to be able to transform voltage sources to equivalent current sources, and current
sources to equivalent voltage sources. For a transformation, each voltage source should have
a series internal resistance, and each current source should have a parallel internal resistance.

Figure 4.3 shows the transformation from a voltage source to an equivalent current source,
and vice versa.

Figure 4.3: Equivalent voltage and current sources

As shown in Figure 4.3, the current source is equivalent to the voltage source if:
E
I= (4.1)
RS
and the resistance in both sources is 𝑅𝑆 .

Similarly, a current source may be converted to an equivalent voltage source by letting:

E = IRS (4.2)

Exercise 4.1

1. Convert the voltage sources of Figure 1.12 into equivalent current sources.

Figure 4.4: Diagram for question 1

[(a) 𝐼 = 3𝐴 (downward) in parallel with 𝑅 = 12 Ω, (b) 𝐼 = 5 𝜇𝐴 (upward) in parallel with

𝑅 = 50 𝑘Ω].
2. Convert the current sources of Figure 4.5 into equivalent voltage sources.

Figure 4.5: Diagram for question 2

[(a) 𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 750 𝑉 in series with 𝑅 = 30 Ω, (b) 𝑉𝑎𝑏 = −6.25 𝑉 in series with 𝑅 = 50 𝑘Ω]

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Example 4.1

Reduce the circuit of Figure 4.6 into a single current source in parallel with resistors and solve
for the current through the resistor 𝑅𝐿 .

Figure 4.6: Circuit for Example 4.1

Solution

We first convert the voltage source into a current source as 5 𝑉/100 Ω = 50 𝑚𝐴. The resulting
circuit may then be simplified to a single current source where:
I S = 200 mA + 50 mA = 250 mA

and
RS = 400    = 80 .

The simplified circuit is shown in Figure 4.7.

Figure 4.7: Simplified circuit

The current through 𝑅𝐿 is now easily calculated as:

 80  
IL =   ( 250 mA ) = 200 mA.
 80  + 20  

4.4 Branch-Current Analysis

Branch-current analysis allows us to directly calculate the current in each branch of a circuit.
This method involves the analysis of several simultaneous linear equations.

When applying branch-current analysis, you will find the following steps useful:

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1. Arbitrarily assign current directions to each branch in the network. If a particular
branch has a current source, then this step is not necessary since you already know
the magnitude and direction of the current in this branch.
2. Using the assigned currents, label the polarities of the voltage drops across all resistors
in the circuit.
3. Apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law around each of the closed loops. Write just enough equations
to include all branches in the loop equations. If a branch has only a current source and no
series resistance, it is not necessary to include it in the KVL equations.
4. Apply Kirchhoff’s current law at enough nodes to ensure that all branch currents have
been included. In the event that a branch has only a current source, it will need to be
included in this step.
5. Solve the resulting simultaneous linear equations.
Example 4.2
Find the current in each branch in the circuit of Figure 4.8.

Figure 4.8: Circuit for Example 4.2

Solution
With the current directions assigned and polarities of the voltage drops on all resistors in the
circuit indicated as shown in Figure 4.8, we write KVL equations as follows:
Loop 𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑑𝑎: E1 − I1 R1 + I 2 R2 − E2 = 0
Substituting the given values and re-arranging, we obtain:
2 I1 − 2 I 2 = 2
Loop 𝑐𝑒𝑓𝑑𝑐: E2 − I 2 R2 − I 3 R3 + E3 = 0
Substituting the given values and re-arranging gives:
2I 2 + 4I3 = 6
Applying KCL at node c, we obtain:
I1 + I 2 − I 3 = 0
Re-writing the linear equations gives:
2 I1 − 2 I 2 + 0 I 3 = 2 (i)
0 I1 + 2 I 2 + 4 I 3 = 6 (ii)
1I1 + 1I 2 − 1I 3 = 0 (iii)
Now, solving Equations (i), (ii), and (iii) simultaneously for the currents, we have that 𝐼1 =
1.2 𝐴, 𝐼2 = 0.2 𝐴 and 𝐼3 = 1.4 𝐴.

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Example 4.3
Find the currents in each branch of the circuit shown in Figure 4.9. Hence, solve for the voltage
𝑉𝑎𝑏 .

Figure 4.9: Circuit for Example 4.3

Solution
With the currents and polarities of the voltages across all resistors as indicated, we now apply
KVL to the various loops as follows:
Loop 𝑏𝑎𝑑𝑏: −2 I 2 + 3I 3 = 8
Loop 𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑏: −2 I 2 + 1I 4 = 6
Also, applying KCL at node 𝑎 yields:
I 2 + I3 + I 4 = 5
Re-writing the linear equations gives:
−2 I 2 + 3I 3 + 0 I 4 = 8 (i)
−2 I 2 + 0 I 3 + 1I 4 = 6 (ii)
1I 2 + 1I 3 + 1I 4 = 5 (iii)
Now, solving Equations (i), (ii), and (iii) simultaneously for the currents gives: 𝐼2 = −1.0 𝐴, 𝐼3 =
2.0 𝐴, and 𝐼4 = 4.0𝐴.

The current 𝐼2 is negative, which simply means that the actual direction of the current is
opposite to the chosen direction, as shown in Figure 4.10.

Figure 4.10: Circuit with actual current directions.

Using the actual direction for 𝐼2 , we obtain:
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = +(2 Ω)(1 𝐴) = +2.0 𝑉

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4.5 Mesh (Loop) Analysis
A better approach (than the branch-current approach) and one that is used extensively in
analysing linear bilateral networks is called mesh (or loop) analysis. While the technique is
similar to branch-current analysis, the number of simultaneous linear equations tends to be
less. The principal difference between mesh analysis and branch-current analysis is that we
simply need to apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law around closed loops without the need for applying
Kirchhoff’s current law.

The steps used in solving a circuit using mesh analysis are as follows:

1. Arbitrarily assign a clockwise current to each interior closed loop in the network.
Although the assigned current may be in any direction, a clockwise direction is used to
make later work simpler.
2. Using the assigned loop currents, indicate the voltage polarities across all resistors in
the circuit. For a resistor that is common to two loops, the polarities of the voltage drop
due to each loop current should be indicated on the appropriate side of the component.
3. Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law, write the loop equations for each loop in the network.
Do not forget that resistors that are common to two loops will have two voltage drops,
one due to each loop.
4. Solve the resultant simultaneous linear equations.
5. Branch currents are determined by algebraically combining the loop currents that are
common to the branch.
Example 4.4
Find the current in each branch for the circuit of Figure 4.11.

Figure 4.11: Circuit diagram for Example 4.4

Solution
From the circuit diagram, the following loop equations are obtained by applying Kirchhoff’s
voltage law in each of the loops:
Loop 1: 4𝐼1 − 2𝐼2 = 2 (i)
Loop 2: −2𝐼1 + 6𝐼2 = 6 (ii)
Solving (i) and (ii) simultaneously yields 𝐼1 = 1.20 𝐴 and 𝐼2 = 1.40 𝐴. From these results, the
current through 𝑅1 and 𝑅3 are 1.20 𝐴 and 1.40 𝐴 respectively. The branch current for 𝑅2 is
found by combining the loop currents through this resistor:
𝐼𝑅2 = 1.40 𝐴 − 1.20 𝐴 = 0.20 𝐴 (upward)

NOTE:
If the circuit being analysed contains current sources, the procedure is a bit more complicated.
The circuit may be simplified by converting the current source(s) to voltage sources and then
solving the resulting network using the procedure shown in the previous example.
Alternatively, you may not wish to alter the circuit, in which case the current source will provide
one of the loop currents.

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Example 4.5

Determine the current through 𝑅2 for the circuit shown in Figure 4.12.

Figure 4.12: Circuit for Example 4.5

Solution
Convert the current source into an equivalent voltage source. The equivalent circuit may now
be analysed by using the loop currents shown in Figure 4.13.

Figure 4.13: Equivalent circuit of Figure 4.12

Writing KVL equations for the two loops, we obtain:

Loop 1: 5I1 − 3I 2 = −18
Loop 2: −3I1 + 4 I 2 = 2
Solving the loop equations for the loop currents, we obtain: 𝐼1 = −6.0 𝐴, 𝐼2 = −4.0 𝐴.
Therefore, the current through 𝑅2 is 𝐼2 − 𝐼1 = −4.0 − (−6.0) = 2.0 𝐴 (upward).

4.6 Nodal Analysis

The object of nodal analysis is to determine the values of the voltages at all the principal nodes
with respect to a particular chosen reference node. The node-equation method is based
directly on Kirchhoff’s current law. It is particularly suited for networks having many parallel
circuits with common ground connected such as electronic circuits.

The steps used in solving a circuit using nodal analysis are as follows:

1. Arbitrarily assign a reference node within the circuit and indicate this node as ground.
The reference node is usually located at the bottom of the circuit, although it may be
located anywhere.
2. Convert each voltage source in the network to its equivalent current source. This step,
although not absolutely necessary, makes further calculations easier to understand.

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3. Arbitrarily assign voltages (𝑉1, 𝑉2 , …, 𝑉𝑛−1) to the remaining nodes in the circuit.
(Remember that you have already assigned a reference node, so these voltages will
all be with respect to the chosen reference.)
4. Arbitrarily assign a current direction to each branch in which there is no current source.
Using the assigned current directions, indicate the corresponding polarities of the
voltage drops on all resistors.
5. With the exception of the reference node (ground), apply Kirchhoff’s current law at
each of the nodes. If a circuit has a total of 𝑛 nodes (including the reference node),
there will be 𝑛 − 1 simultaneous linear equations.
6. Rewrite each of the arbitrarily assigned currents in terms of the potential difference
across a known resistance.
7. Solve the resulting simultaneous linear equations for the voltages (𝑉1, 𝑉2 , …, 𝑉𝑛−1).

Example 4.6

Given the circuit of Figure 4.14, use nodal analysis to solve for the voltage 𝑉𝑎𝑏 .

Figure 4.14: Circuit for Example 4.6

Solution
We convert the voltage source in the circuit into an equivalent current source, we select a
convenient reference node as shown in Figure 4.15.

Figure 4.15: Equivalent circuit of Figure 4.14

Applying KCL at the nodes labelled as 𝑉1 and 𝑉2 , we obtain:

Node 𝑉1: 200 mA + 50 mA = I1 + I 2 (i)

Node 𝑉2 : 200 mA + I 2 = 50 mA + I 3 (ii)

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V1 V V −V V −V V V
But I1 = = 1 , I 2 = 1 2 = 1 2 , I 3 = 2 = 2 . Thus, the nodal equations
R1 20  R2 40  R3 30 
become:
 1 1   1 
 +  V1 −   V2 = 0.25 (iii)
 20 40   40 
1  1 1 
− V1 +  +  V2 = 0.15 (iv)
40  30 40 
Solving (iii) and (iv) simultaneously, we obtain: 𝑉1 = 4.89 𝑉 and 𝑉2 = 4.67 𝑉.

If we refer to the original circuit in Figure 4.14, we see that 𝑉𝑎 = 𝑉2 = 4.67 𝑉.

Therefore, Vab = Va − Vb = 4.67 V − 6.0 V = −1.33 V.

4.7 Superposition Theorem

Superposition theorem states that “in any network made up of linear resistances and
containing more than one source of emf., the resultant current flowing in any branch is the
algebraic sum of the currents that would flow in that branch if each source were considered
separately, all other sources being replaced at that time by their respective internal
resistances.”

In other to apply the superposition theorem, it is necessary to remove all sources other than
the one being examined. In other to “zero” a voltage source, we replace it with a short circuit,
since the voltage across a short circuit is zero volts. A current source is zeroed by replacing
it with an open circuit, since the current through an open circuit is zero amps.

Example 4.7

Using superposition theorem, determine the current through the 4 Ω of Figure 4.16.

Figure 4.16: Circuit diagram of Example 4.7

Solution
To consider the effects of 𝐸1 , we replace 𝐸2 with a short circuit as shown in Figure 4.17.

Figure 4.18: Effect of 𝐸1 on the current 𝐼3 .

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From Figure 4.18, 𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ∥ 𝑅3 = 24 Ω + 12 Ω ∥ 4 Ω = 27 Ω
𝐸1 54 𝑉
𝐼= = =2𝐴
𝑅𝑇 27 Ω
Using the current divider rule, we obtain
𝑅2 𝐼 12 × 2
𝐼3′ = = = 1.5 𝐴
𝑅2 + 𝑅3 12 + 4
To consider the effects of 𝐸2 , we replace 𝐸1 with a short circuit as shown in Figure 4.19.

Figure 4.19: Effect of 𝐸2 on 𝐼3

From Figure 4.19, 𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅3 + 𝑅1 ∥ 𝑅2 = 4 Ω + 24 Ω ∥ 12 Ω = 12 Ω

𝐸2 48
𝐼3′′ = = =4𝐴
𝑅𝑇 12
Therefore, the total current through the 4 Ω resistor is 𝐼3 = 𝐼3′′ − 𝐼3′ = 4 − 1.5 = 2.5 𝐴 (in the
direction of 𝐼3′′ ).

4.8 Thevenin’s Theorem

Thevenin’s theorem is a circuit analysis technique which reduces any linear bilateral network
to an equivalent circuit having only one voltage source and one series resistor. The resulting
two-terminal circuit is equivalent to the original circuit when connected to any external branch
or component. Thevenin’s theorem is therefore stated as follows:

“Any linear bilateral network may be reduced to a simplified two-terminal circuit consisting of
a single voltage source in series with a single resistance”, as shown in Figure 4.20.

Figure 4.20: Thevenin equivalent circuit

A linear network is any network that consists of components having a linear (straight-line)
relationship between voltage and current. A bilateral network is any network that operates in
the same manner regardless of the direction of current in the network.

The following steps summarize the procedure for using Thevenin’s theorem in determining the
current in any branch of an active network:

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1. Remove the load from the circuit.
2. Determine the open-circuit voltage, 𝐸𝑇ℎ , across the open terminals.
3. Set all sources to zero (i.e. replace all voltage sources with short circuits and all
current sources with open circuits) and then determine the resistance 𝑅𝑇ℎ , “looking-
in” at the open terminals.
4. Draw the Thevenin equivalent circuit using the resistance 𝑅𝑇ℎ and the voltage 𝐸𝑇ℎ .
As part of the resulting circuit, include that portion of the network removed in step
1.

Example 4.8
Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit for the shaded area of the network in Figure 4.21. Then
find the current through 𝑅𝐿 for 𝑅𝐿 = 2 𝛺.

Figure 4.21: Circuit for Example 4.8.

Solution
As stated earlier, the first step is to remove the load resistance and determine the voltage
across the open terminals 𝑎 and 𝑏 as shown in Figure 4.22.

Figure 4.22: Determining the open-terminal voltage 𝐸𝑇ℎ

From Figure 4.22, we have

𝑅2 𝐸1 6Ω×9𝑉
𝐸𝑇ℎ = = =6𝑉
𝑅2 + 𝑅1 6 Ω + 3 Ω
To determine the resistance 𝑅𝑇ℎ , we replace 𝐸1 with a short-circuit to obtain Figure 4.23.

Figure 4.23: Determining the resistance 𝑅𝑇ℎ

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From Figure 4.23, we obtain:
3Ω×6Ω
𝑅𝑇ℎ = 𝑅1 ∥ 𝑅2 = =2Ω
3Ω+6Ω

The resulting simplified network, with the load reconnected, is as shown in Figure 4.24.

Figure 4.24: Thevenized network

Thus, from the Thevenized network of Figure 4.24,

𝐸𝑇ℎ 6𝑉
𝐼𝐿 = = = 1.5 𝐴
𝑅𝑇ℎ + 𝑅𝐿 2 Ω + 2 Ω
Example 4.9
Find the Thévenin equivalent circuit of the indicated area in Figure 4.25. Using the equivalent
circuit, determine the current through the load resistor when 𝑅𝐿 = 2 𝑘Ω.

Figure 4.25: Circuit for Example 4.9

Solution
After removing the load, labelling the terminals, and setting the sources to zero, we have the
circuit shown in Figure 4.26.

Figure 4.26: Determining the resistance 𝑅𝑇ℎ

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From Figure 4.26, the Thévenin resistance of the circuit is
𝑅𝑇ℎ = 𝑅1 ∥ 𝑅2 = 6 𝑘Ω ∥ 2 𝑘Ω = 1.5 𝑘Ω.
To determine the Thévenin voltage, 𝐸𝑇ℎ , we note that there are two sources; a 15 𝑉 voltage
source and a 5 𝑚𝐴 current source. In a situation like this, several methods are available for
finding open-circuit voltage, 𝑉𝑎𝑏 . However, we will use the superposition theorem to determine
the contributions due to each of the sources. Figure 4.27(a) shows the circuit for determining
the contribution due to the 15-𝑉 source while Figure 4.27(b) shows the circuit for determining
the contribution due to the 5-𝑚𝐴 source.

(a) (b)

Figure 4.27: Determining 𝐸𝑇ℎ

From Figure 4.27(a), we have

2 𝑘Ω × 15 𝑉
𝑉𝑎𝑏(1) = = +3.75 𝑉
2 kΩ + 6 kΩ
From Figure 4.27(b), we obtain
2 𝑘Ω × 6 𝑘Ω
𝑉𝑎𝑏(2) = ( ) (5 𝑚𝐴) = +7.5 𝑉
2 𝑘Ω + 6 𝑘Ω
Therefore, the Thévenin equivalent voltage is
𝐸𝑇ℎ = 𝑉𝑎𝑏(1) + 𝑉𝑎𝑏(2) = +3.75 𝑉 + 7.5 𝑉 = 11.25 𝑉
The resulting Thévenin equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 4.28.

Figure 4.28: Thevenized circuit

11.25 𝑉
From this circuit, the current through 𝑅𝐿 = 2 𝑘Ω is 𝐼𝐿 = 1.5 𝑘Ω+2 𝑘Ω = 3.21 𝑚𝐴.

4.9 Norton’s Theorem

Norton’s theorem is a circuit analysis technique which is similar to Thévenin’s theorem. By
using this theorem, the circuit is reduced to a single current source and one parallel resistor.
Norton’s theorem may be stated as follows:

“Any linear bilateral network may be reduced to a simplified two-terminal circuit consisting of
a single current source and a single shunt resistor” as shown in Figure 4.29.

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Figure 4.29: Norton equivalent circuit

The following steps summarize the procedure for converting a network into Norton’s equivalent
circuit:
1. Remove the load from the circuit.
2. Set all sources to zero by replacing voltage sources with short circuits and current
sources with open circuits. Then determine the Norton equivalent resistance, 𝑅𝑁 , by
determining the resistance seen between the open terminals.
3. Replace the sources removed in step 2, put a short circuit across the load terminals
and determine the short-circuit current, 𝐼𝑁 , flowing through the branch.
4. Draw the Norton equivalent circuit using the resistance 𝑅𝑁 and the current 𝐼𝑁 . As part
of the resulting circuit, include that portion of the network removed in step 1.
The Norton equivalent circuit may also be determined directly from the Thévenin equivalent
circuit by using the source conversion technique earlier discussed in section 4.3.

Figure 4.30: Converting between Norton and Thevenin equivalent circuits.

Example 4.10
Find the Norton equivalent of the circuit external to resistor 𝑅𝐿 in the circuit in Figure 4.31. Use
the equivalent circuit to determine the load current 𝐼𝐿 when 𝑅𝐿 = 2 𝑘Ω.

Figure 4.31: Circuit of Example 4.10.

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Solution
After removing the load resistor, labelling the remaining two terminals 𝑎 and 𝑏, and setting the
sources to zero, we have the circuit of Figure 4.32.

Figure 4.32: Determining the resistance 𝑅𝑁

The Norton resistance of the circuit is found as

𝑅𝑁 = 6 𝑘Ω ∥ 2 𝑘Ω = 1.5 𝑘Ω
To find the value of the Norton constant-current source, we determine the current effects due
to each independent source acting on a short circuit between terminals 𝑎 and 𝑏.

(a) (b)
Figure 4.33: Determining 𝐼𝑁
Figure 4.33(a) shows the circuit for determining the current contribution due to the 15-𝑉 source
while Figure 4.33(b) shows the circuit for determining the current contribution due to the 5-𝑚𝐴
source.

From Figure 4.33(a), the short-circuit current due to the 15-𝑉 voltage source is
15 𝑉
𝐼𝑎𝑏(1) = = 2.50 𝑚𝐴
6 𝑘Ω
From Figure 4.33(b), the short-circuit current due to the 5-𝑚𝐴 current source is
𝐼𝑎𝑏(2) = 5.00 𝑚𝐴
The resulting Norton current is found from superposition as
𝐼𝑁 = 𝐼𝑎𝑏(1) + 𝐼𝑎𝑏(2) = 2.50 𝑚𝐴 + 5.00 𝑚𝐴 = 7.50 𝑚𝐴
The Norton equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 4.34.

Figure 4.34: Norton equivalent circuit

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When 𝑅𝐿 = 2 𝑘Ω, then from Figure 4.34, 𝐼𝐿 is easily determined using the current divider rule
as
1.5 𝑘Ω
𝐼𝐿 = ( ) (7.50 𝑚𝐴) = 3.21 𝑚𝐴
1.5 𝑘Ω + 2 𝑘Ω
Comparing the above result to that obtained in Example 4.9, we see that they are precisely
the same.

4.10 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

In amplifiers and in most communication circuits such as radio receivers and transmitters, it is
often desired that the load receive the maximum amount of power from a source.

The maximum power transfer theorem states that “a resistive load will abstract maximum
power from a network when the load resistance is equal to the resistance of the network as
viewed from the output terminals, with all energy sources removed leaving behind their internal
resistances”.

In Figure 4.35, we see that once the network has been simplified using either Thévenin’s or
Norton’s theorem, maximum power will occur when
RL = RTh = RN (4.3)

Examining the equivalent circuits of Figure 4.35, shows that the following equations determine
the power delivered to the load:

(a) (b)

Figure 4.35: Conditions for maximum power to a load using (a) the Thevenin equivalent
circuit (b) the Norton equivalent circuit.

From Figure 4.35(a), we can write:

2
 ETh 
PL = I RL = 
2
 RL (4.4)
 RTh + RL 
L

Similarly, from Figure 4.35(b), we can write:

2
 I R 
PL =  N N  RL (4.5)
 RL + RN 
Under maximum power conditions (𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑇ℎ = 𝑅𝑁 ), the above equations may be used to
determine the maximum power delivered to the load and may therefore be written as:
ETh2
Pmax = (4.6)
4 RTh

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Or
I N2 RN
Pmax = (4.7)
4

Example 4.11

For the network of Figure 4.36, determine the value of 𝑅 such that maximum possible power
will be transferred to 𝑅. Find also the value of the maximum power and the power supplied by
source under these conditions.

Figure 4.36: Circuit diagram for Example 4.11

Solution
Applying Thevenin’s theorem to Figure 4.36, we obtain:
𝑅𝑇ℎ = 𝑅3 + 𝑅1 ∥ 𝑅2 = 10 Ω
Therefore, for the circuit to deliver maximum power to the load, 𝑅 = 𝑅𝑇ℎ = 10 Ω
And
𝑅2 𝐸
𝐸𝑇ℎ = =4𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
The maximum power delivered to the load is:
2
𝐸𝑇ℎ
𝑃𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 0.4 𝑊
4𝑅𝑇ℎ
Since the same power is developed in 𝑅𝑇ℎ , power supplied by the source= 2 × 0.4 = 0.8 𝑊.

Exercise 4.2
1. Use branch-current analysis to solve for the indicated currents in the circuit of Figure
Q1.

Figure Q1: Circuit for question 1.

[Answers: 𝐼1 = 3.0 𝐴, 𝐼2 = 4.0 𝐴, 𝐼3 = 1.0 𝐴]

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2. Use mesh analysis to find the loop currents in the circuit of Figure Q2.

Figure Q2: Circuit for question 2.

[Answers: 𝐼1 = 3.0 𝐴, 𝐼2 = 2.0 𝐴, 𝐼3 = 5.0 𝐴]

3. Use nodal analysis to determine the node voltages for the circuit of Figure Q3.

Figure Q3: Circuit for question 3.

[𝑉1 = 3.0 𝑉, 𝑉2 = 6.0 𝑉, 𝑉3 = −2.0 𝑉]

4. Consider the network of Figure Q4:

Figure Q4: Network for question 4.

(a) Use superposition theorem to find the current through each resistor of the network
in Figure Q4.
(b) Find the power delivered to 𝑅1 by each source.
(c) Find the power delivered to 𝑅1 using the total current through 𝑅1 .
(d) Does superposition apply to power effects? Explain.

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5. Consider the network shown in Figure Q5:

Figure Q5: Network for Question 5

(a) Obtain the Thévenin equivalent circuit for the network external to the resistor 𝑅 in
the network of Figure Q5.
(b) Find the current through 𝑅 when 𝑅 is 2 Ω, 30 Ω, and 100 Ω.
(c) Obtain the Norton’s equivalent circuit for the network external to the resistor 𝑅 in
the network of Figure Q5.
(d) Find the current through 𝑅 when 𝑅 is 2 Ω, 30 Ω, and 100 Ω.

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