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Lecture 18_Atomic Structure

The document discusses the Bohr model of atomic structure, highlighting its achievements in explaining atomic stability and emission spectra, as well as its limitations in addressing multi-electron species and the Zeeman effect. It introduces quantum mechanics, emphasizing the contributions of Heisenberg, de Broglie, and Schrödinger, particularly the Schrödinger equation and the concept of wave functions and orbitals. The document also covers quantum numbers, including principal, angular momentum, magnetic, and electron spin quantum numbers, which define the properties and behaviors of electrons in atoms.

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Kelvin Mugwagwa
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11 views

Lecture 18_Atomic Structure

The document discusses the Bohr model of atomic structure, highlighting its achievements in explaining atomic stability and emission spectra, as well as its limitations in addressing multi-electron species and the Zeeman effect. It introduces quantum mechanics, emphasizing the contributions of Heisenberg, de Broglie, and Schrödinger, particularly the Schrödinger equation and the concept of wave functions and orbitals. The document also covers quantum numbers, including principal, angular momentum, magnetic, and electron spin quantum numbers, which define the properties and behaviors of electrons in atoms.

Uploaded by

Kelvin Mugwagwa
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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CH 110

ATOMIC STRUCTURE
&
PERIODICITY
3
Achievement of the Bohr Model
• Explanation of the stability of atoms.

• Explanation of emission spectra.

• Explanation of how the absorption


spectrum is produced.

• Explanation of how a hydrogen spectrum


is produced
Limitations of the Bohr Model
• Fails to explain the origin of the spectrum
given by multi-electron species. (Only
explains the origin of the spectrum given by
one-electron species s.a. H, He+, Be3+, etc.

• Bohr states that orbits are planer, but


research shows that electrons move around
the nucleus in three dimensions.
Limitations of the Bohr Model
• Bohr fails to explain the Zeeman effect.
– Further splitting of spectral lines in a magnetic
field producing thinner closely spaced lines.

• Bohr states that an electron moves around


the nucleus in circular orbits.
– This was disputed by Heisenberg & de Broglie.
Quantum Mechanics
• Bohr model paved way for later theories of the atom.

• Heisenberg, de Broglie & Schrodinger were in the


forefront of coming up with the new model.

• They developed a new approach called the “Wave


Mechanics” aka “Quantum Mechanics”
Quantum Mechanics
• Schrodinger worked on a model for the H-atom in
which the electron was assumed to behave as a
standing wave.

• The mathematical treatment to the standing wave


made him come up with an equation called the
“Schrodinger equation”

• This incorporates both the wave & particle nature of


matter.
Quantum Mechanics
• Schrödinger Equation

– Ψ is wave function
– H is Hamiltonian operator
– E is total energy of the atom
Wave Function for Hydrogen
• A specific wave function is called an orbital.
• For H, the wave function is called the 1s orbital.
– NB: An orbital is NOT an orbit.

• The 1s electron for H does not move around the


nucleus in circular orbit.
• The wave function does not give a detailed pathway
for an electron.
• To understand the nature of an orbital, consider the
principle put forward by Heisenberg.
The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
Heisenberg showed
that the more
precisely the
momentum of a
particle is known,
the less precisely is
its position known
Mathematically:
h
(x) (mv) 
4
x = uncertainty measurement in the particle’s position
mv = uncertainty measurement in the particle’s momentum
The more accurate we know the particle’s position, the less accurate we can know its
momentum, and vice versa
The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

In many cases, our


uncertainty of the
whereabouts of an
electron is greater
than the size of the
atom itself!

For an electron, the uncertainty principle implies that we cannot know the
exact position of the electron as it moves around the nucleus.
Thus, the electron does not move around the nucleus in a well defined path.
Quantum Mechanics
• The square of the wave
equation, 2, gives a
probability density map of
where an electron has a
certain statistical likelihood
of where it is at any given
instant in time.
• The probability of
finding an electron at
any particular position
is greatest close to the
nucleus and drops off
rapidly as the distance
from the nucleus
increases
Radial probability distribution for
hydrogen
Quantum Numbers
• Solving the wave equation (Schrodinger
equation) gives a set of wave functions, or
orbitals, and their corresponding energies.
• we cannot pinpoint an electron in an atom but
we can define the region where electrons can
be in a particular time……… called a
Probability map….a 3-dimensional area in
space called an ORBITAL
• Each orbital describes a spatial distribution of
electron density.
• An ORBITAL is a volume of space in which
there is a high probability of finding an electron
density
• An orbital has a fixed energy level.
• Each atomic orbital can accommodate a maximum
of two electrons.

• A SHELL is a group of orbitals whose radial


distribution from the nucleus is approximately
equal.

• Each electron in an atom is identified by a


combination of four QUANTUM NUMBERS
Principal Quantum Number (n)
• Indicates main energy levels or shells to
which an electron belongs.
n = 1, 2, 3, 4……..∞
Letter designation: K, L, M, N, ……..

The larger the value of n the higher the


energy level
As n increases, the size of orbitals also
increases.
• Each main energy level has sub-levels
Energy sublevels: s, p, d, f, g
• The principle quantum number, n,
determines the number of sublevels
within the principle energy level.
Angular Momentum Quantum
Number (ℓ )
• This quantum number defines the
shape of the orbital.
• Allowed values of ℓ are integers ranging
from 0 to n − 1.
• We use letter designations to
communicate the different values of ℓ
and, therefore, the shapes and types of
orbitals.
Angular Momentum Quantum Number (ℓ )

n ℓ sublevel (Orbital)
1 0 s
2 1 p
3 2 d
4 3 f
5 4 g

ORBITAL: The space where there is a high


probability that it is occupied by a pair of electrons.
Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)

• The magnetic quantum number describes the


three-dimensional orientation of the orbital.
• Allowed values of ml are integers ranging
from − ℓ to + ℓ :
− ℓ ≤ ml ≤ ℓ
• Therefore, on any given energy level, there
can be up to 1 s orbital, 3 p orbitals, 5 d
orbitals, 7 f orbitals, and so forth.
Magnetic Quantum Number, ml
• E.g if l = 0, then ml = 0 (s)
if l = 1, then ml = -1, 0, +1 (p)
If l = 2, then ml = -2, -1, 0, +1, +2 (d)
If l = 3, then ml = -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, +3 (f)

Each orbital has a maximum of 2 electrons


Orbitals in Sublevels

Sublevel # Orbitals # electrons


s 1 2
p 3 6
d 5 10
f 7 14
g 9 18
Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)
• Orbitals with the same value of n form a shell.
• Different orbital types within a shell are subshells.
s Orbitals

• The value of l for s orbitals is 0.


• They are spherical in shape.
• The radius of the sphere increases with the
value of n.
s Orbitals

Observing a graph of
probabilities of finding an
electron versus distance
from the nucleus, we see
that s orbitals possess n
− 1 nodes, or regions
where there is 0
probability of finding an
electron.
p Orbitals
• The value of l for p orbitals is 1.
• They have two lobes with a node between
them.
d Orbitals

• The value of l for a


d orbital is 2.
• Four of the five d
orbitals have 4
lobes; the other
resembles a p
orbital with a
doughnut around
the center.
Electron Spin Quantum Number
• An orbital can hold only
two electrons and they
must have opposite spin.

• Electron Spin Quantum


Number (ms): +1/2, -1/2

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