Reference Notes

1 Unit 2: Mechanics
Mechanics is the branch of physics that deals with the study of motion. It is classified into two
broad categories:

Kinematics: the study of motion without regard to the forces that influence the motion
Dynamics: which encompasses the laws of motion and allows us to predict an obeect’s motion
from information about the obeect and its environment.

Position Vectors and Frame of Reference

The obeects in regards to motion are mainly referred to as particles. A particle is an idealized
entity with no size or internal structure.

Describing the motion of an obeect, the first step is to establish a coordinate frame, or frame
reference.

A position vector locates an obeect relative to a frame reference.

1.1 Kinematics in one dimension

Kinematics or motion in one dimension refer to motion in a straight line along a single axis. In
order to describe this type of motion, you must choose a reference or frame of reference. A
frame of reference is a system for specifying the precise location of obeects in space with time
such as the coordinate system.

1.1.1 Position
Position refers to the location of the particle with respect to a chosen reference point.

To describe position of particle 1 and 2 we can use point O as the reference. Position is
represented by X which is described by nature of position as (+) Positive, (-) Negative and
reference point O.

1.1.2 Distance
The distance is the total length travelled by an obeect. “How far have you walked?” is a typical
distance question. The SI unit of distance is the meter (m) and it is a scalar quantity.
Reference Notes

If you drive from your house to the grocery store and back, you have covered a distance of 8.6
mi. which is equal to going 4.3mi and coming back also 4.3mi, giving as total 8.6

1.1.3 Displacement
The displacement ∆𝑥 of a particle is defined as its change in position in some time interval. As
the particle moves from an initial position 𝑥𝑖 to a final position 𝑥𝑓 , its displacement is given by
The symbolΔ is a Greek letter used to represent the words “change in”. ∆𝑥 therefore means
“change in 𝑥”. Displacement is a vector. Displacement has SI unit of meter

It is always calculated by final value minus initial value.

∆𝑥 = 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖

Example 1

Given the figure below calculate:

i. The distance A to B
Solution 𝑥 = 25𝑚𝑖 − 10𝑚𝑖 = 15𝑚𝑖
ii. Distance B to C
Solution 𝑥 = 25𝑚𝑖 + 20𝑚𝑖 = 45𝑚𝑖
iii. Distance A to B to C
Solution 𝑥 = 15𝑚𝑖 + 25𝑚𝑖 + 20𝑚𝑖 = 60𝑚𝑖

iv. Displacement A to B
Solution
∆𝑥 = 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖
= 25𝑚𝑖 − 10𝑚𝑖 = 𝟏𝟓𝒎𝒊 𝑬𝒂𝒔𝒕
v. Displacement B to C
∆𝑥 = 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖
= −20𝑚𝑖 − 25𝑚𝑖 = −𝟒𝟓𝒎𝒊 𝑾𝒆𝒔𝒕
vi. Displacement A to B to C
∆𝑥 = 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖
= −20𝑚𝑖 − 10𝑚𝑖 = −𝟑𝟎𝒎𝒊 𝑾𝒆𝒔𝒕
Reference Notes

Classwork

1. Two tennis players approach the net to congratulate one another after a game. a) Find
the distance and displacement of player A. b) Repeat for player B.

2. You are driving a car on a circular track of diameter 40 meters. After you have driven
around 2 ½ times, how far have you driven, and what is your displacement?

1.1.4 Average Speed

Average speed describes how fast a particle is moving. If a car travels 200 meters in 10 seconds,
we say its average speed is 20 meters per second. The equation is:
∆𝑥
𝑣𝑎𝑣 =
∆𝑡
The IS unit for average speed is 𝑚/𝑠 .Where

𝑣𝑎𝑣 = 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑

∆𝑥 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
∆𝑡 = 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

The Average velocity is + or– depending on direction.

Example 2

How far does a eogger run in 1.5 hours (5400 s) if his average speed is 2.22 m /s?

Solution

To find the distance run, we rewrite Equation in relation to Distance = (Average speed) (Elapsed
time)
𝑣𝑎𝑣
∆𝑥 =
∆𝑡
= (2.22 𝑚 /𝑠)(5400 𝑠)
= 11 988 𝑚
Reference Notes

1.1.5 Average Velocity

Average velocity describes how fast the displacement is changing. Average velocity is + or–
depending on direction. SI Unit of Average Velocity is meter per second (m/s).

The equation is:

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑥 − 𝑥0 ∆𝑥
𝑣𝑎𝑣 = =
𝑡 − 𝑡0 ∆𝑡
Note that ∆𝑡 is defined in a manner analogous to ∆𝑥, which is the final position minus the initial
position (∆𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝑥0 ). Dividing the displacement ∆𝑥 of the car by the elapsed time ∆𝑡 gives the
average velocity of the car.

Example 3

Andy Green in the car Thrust SSC set a world record of 341.1 m /s (763 mi/ h) in 1997. The car
was powered by two eet engines, and it was the first one officially to exceed the speed of sound.
To establish such a record, the driver makes two runs through the course, one in each direction,
to nullify wind effects. Figure a shows that the car first travels from left to right and covers a
distance of 1609 m (1 mile) in a time of 4.740 s. Figure b shows that in the reverse direction, the
car covers the same distance in 4.695 s. From these data, determine the average velocity for
each run.

Solution
∆𝑥 = 1609𝑚
𝑅𝑢𝑛 1𝑎 𝑣𝑎𝑣 = = = +339.5𝑚/𝑠
∆𝑡 4.740𝑠
∆𝑥 = 1609𝑚
𝑅𝑢𝑛 1𝑏 𝑣𝑎𝑣 = = = −342.7.5𝑚/𝑠
∆𝑡 4.69
Reference Notes

1.1.6 Acceleration
The velocity of a moving obeect may change in a number of ways. For example, it may increase,
when the driver of a car steps on the gas pedal to pass the car ahead. Or it may decrease, when
the driver applies the brakes to stop at a red light. In either case, the change in velocity may
occur over a short or a long time interval.

Velocity can change with time. An obeect with velocity changing with time is said to be
accelerating. Any change in velocity over a period of time is called acceleration. The sign (+ or -)
of acceleration indicates its direction.

Acceleration can be;

 Speeding up
 Slowing down
 Turning

The equation for acceleration is:

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑣 − 𝑣0 ∆𝑣
𝑎= =
𝑡 − 𝑡0 ∆𝑡

The SI unit of acceleration is the 𝑚/𝑠 2

Example 4

Suppose the plane in Figure above starts from rest (𝑣0 = 0 𝑚/s) when 𝑡0 = 0 𝑠. The plane
accelerates down the runway and at 𝑡 = 29 𝑠 attains a velocity of 𝑣 = +260 𝑘𝑚/ ℎ, where the
plus sign indicates that the velocity points to the right.

Determine the average acceleration of the plane.

𝑣 − 𝑣0 260𝑘𝑚/ℎ − 0𝑘𝑚/ℎ 𝑘𝑚/ℎ
𝑎= = = +9.0
𝑡 − 𝑡0 29𝑠 − 0𝑠 𝑠
Reference Notes

It is customary to express the units for acceleration solely in terms of SI units. One way to obtain
SI units for the acceleration in the example is to convert the velocity units from km/h to m /s:
𝑘𝑚 1000𝑚 1ℎ 𝑚
260 × × = 72
ℎ 1𝑘𝑚 3600𝑠 𝑠

𝑣 − 𝑣0 72𝑚/𝑠 − 0𝑚/𝑠
𝑎= = = +2.5𝑚/𝑠 2
𝑡 − 𝑡0 29𝑠 − 0𝑠
Example 5

A drag racer crosses the finish line, and the driver deploys a parachute and applies the brakes to
slow down, as in the figure below illustrates. The driver begins slowing down when 𝑡0 = 9.0𝑠
and the car’s velocity is 𝒗𝒐 = 28 𝑚/𝑠. When t = 12.0 s, the velocity has been reduced to v=13
m/s. What is the average acceleration of the dragster?

Solution
𝑣 − 𝑣0 13𝑚/𝑠 − 28𝑚/𝑠
𝑎= = = −5.0𝑚/𝑠 2
𝑡 − 𝑡0 12𝑠 − 9𝑠
Reference Notes

If the sign of the velocity and the sign of the acceleration is the same, the obeect speeds up.

If the sign of the velocity and the sign of the acceleration are different, the obeect slows down.

1.1.7 Equations of Kinematics for Constant Acceleration

In discussing the equations of kinematics, it will be convenient to assume that the obeect is
located at the origin x0=0 m when t0=0 s. With this assumption, the displacement ∆𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝑥0
becomes ∆𝑥 = 𝑥.

Consider an obeect that has an initial velocity of v0 at time t0 = 0 s and moves for a time t with a
constant acceleration a. For a complete description of the motion, it is also necessary to know
the final velocity and displacement at time t. The final velocity v can be obtained directly from
Equation below
𝑣−𝑣0
𝑎̅ = 𝑎 = 𝑡
𝑜𝑟 𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡 (Constant acceleration)

The displacement x at time t can be obtained from Equation 2.2, if a value for the average
velocity can be obtained. Considering the assumption that x0 = 0 m at t0 = 0 s, we have
𝑥 − 𝑥0 𝑥
𝑣̅ = 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 𝑣̅ 𝑡
𝑡 − 𝑡0 𝑡
Because the acceleration is constant, the velocity increases at a constant rate. Thus, the average
velocity is midway between the initial and final velocities:
1
𝑣̅ = (𝑣0 + 𝑣)
2
Equation these applies only if the acceleration is constant and cannot be used when the
acceleration is changing. The displacement at time t can now be determined as
1
𝑥 = 𝑣̅ 𝑡 = (𝑣0 − 𝑣)𝑡
2
Example 6

The speedboat in Figure 2.8 has a constant acceleration of +2.0 m/s2. If the initial velocity of the
boat is +6.0 m /s, find its displacement after 8.0 seconds.
Reference Notes

Solution

Data for three given variables

To calculate for final velocity we use

𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡 = +6.0𝑚𝑙𝑠 + (2𝑚/𝑠 2 )(8.0𝑠) = +22𝑚/𝑠

The displacement can now be obtained from:

1 1
𝑥 = 𝑣̅ 𝑡 = (𝑣0 + 𝑣)𝑡 = (+6.0𝑚/𝑠 + 22𝑚/𝑠)(8.0𝑠) = 112𝑚
2 2
Note to solve example 5, we can solve it also in one single equation by substituting the final
velocity in the equation for solving displacement.
1
𝑥 = 𝑣̅ 𝑡 = (𝑣0 + 𝑣)𝑡
2
𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡
Substituting final velocity
1 1
𝑥 = 𝑣̅ 𝑡 = (𝑣0 + 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡)𝑡 = (2𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 )
2 2
1
= 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
Example 7

A eet is taking off from the deck of an aircraft carrier, as Figure 2.9 shows. Starting from rest, the
eet is catapulted with a constant acceleration of +31 m/s2 along a straight line and reaches a
velocity of +62 m/s. Find the displacement of the eet.

Solution

𝑣 − 𝑣0 +62𝑚/𝑠 − 0𝑚/𝑠
𝑡= = = 2.0𝑠
𝑎 +31𝑚/𝑠
The displacement can be found by
1 1
𝑥 = (𝑣0 + 𝑣)𝑡 = (0𝑚/𝑠 + 62𝑚/𝑠)(2.0𝑠) =
2 2
Reference Notes

When 𝑎, 𝑣, and 𝑣0 are known, but the time 𝑡 is not known, as in Example above, it is possible to
calculate the displacement 𝑥 in a single step. For this one time is substituted the equation for
displacement.
𝑣 − 𝑣0
𝑡=
𝑎
1
𝑥 = (𝑣0 + 𝑣)𝑡
2
So substitution 𝑡 gives

1 𝑣 − 𝑣0 𝑣 2 − 𝑣0 2
𝑥 = (𝑣0 + 𝑣) =
2 𝑎 2𝑎
Solving for 𝑣 2

𝑣 2 = 𝑣0 2 + 2𝑎𝑥
1.1.8 Applications of the Equations of Kinematics
These equations are called the equations of kinematics. Each equation contains four variables, as
indicated by the check marks (✓) in the table.
Reference Notes

Exercise

Question 1

The spacecraft is traveling with a velocity of +3250 m/s. suddenly the retrorockets are fired, and
the spacecraft begins to slow down with an acceleration whose magnitude is 10.0 m/s2. What is
the velocity of the spacecraft when the displacement of the craft is +215 km, relative to the
point where the retrorockets began firing?

Question 2

A motorcycle, starting from rest, has an acceleration of +2.6 m /s2. After the motorcycle has
travelled a distance of 120 m, it slows down with an acceleration of -1.5 m /s2 until its velocity is
+12 m/s. What is the total displacement of the motorcycle?

A plane is flying in a northwest direction when it lands, touching the end of the runway with a
speed of 130 m/s. If the runway is 1.0 km long, what must the acceleration of the plane be if it is
to stop while leaving ¼ of the runway remaining as a safety margin?

Question 3

On a ride called the Detonator at Worlds of Fun in Kansas City, passengers accelerate straight
downward from 0 to 20 m/s in 1.0 second.

a. What is the average acceleration of the passengers on this ride?

b. How fast would they be going if they accelerated for an additional second at this rate?
Reference Notes

1.1.9 Freely Falling Bodies

Everyone has observed the effect of gravity as it causes obeects to fall downward. In the absence
of air resistance, it is found that all bodies at the same location above the earth fall vertically with
the same acceleration. Furthermore, if the distance of the fall is small compared to the radius of
the earth, the acceleration remains essentially constant throughout the descent. This idealized
motion, in which air resistance is neglected and the acceleration is nearly constant, is known as
free-fall. Since the acceleration is constant in freefall, the equations of kinematics can be used.

The acceleration of a freely falling body is called the acceleration due to gravity, and its magnitude
(without any algebraic sign) is denoted by the symbol g. The acceleration due to gravity is directed
downward, toward the centre of the earth. Near the earth’s surface, g is approximately

𝐠 = 9.80𝑚/𝑠 2

When the equations of kinematics are applied to free-fall motion, it is natural to use the symbol
𝑦 for the displacement, since the motion occurs in the vertical or 𝑦 direction. Thus, when using
the equations from Kinematics of equation under free-fall motion, we will simply replace 𝑥 with
𝑦. There is no significance to this change. The equations have the same algebraic form for either
the horizontal or vertical direction, provided that the acceleration remains constant during the
motion.

Obeects thrown upward or downward and those released from rest are all falling freely once they
are released. Any freely falling obeect experiences an acceleration directed downward, regardless
of its initial motion.

1.1.10 Symmetry in Free Fall

 When something is thrown straight upward under the influence of gravity, and then
returns to the thrower, this is very symmetric.
 The obeect spends half its time traveling up; half traveling down.
 Velocity when it returns to the ground is the opposite of the velocity it was thrown upward
with.
 Acceleration is 9.8 m/s2 and directed DOWN the entire time the obeect is in the air!
Reference Notes

Example 8

Question 1

A stone is dropped from rest from the top of a tall building. After 3.00 s of free-fall, what is the
displacement 𝑦 of the stone?

Solution

The upward direction is chosen as the positive direction. The three known variables are shown in
the box below. The initial velocity 𝑣0 of the stone is zero, because the stone is dropped from rest.
The acceleration due to gravity is negative, since it points downward in the negative direction.

1 1
𝑦 = 𝑣0 𝑡 − 𝑎𝑡 = (0𝑚/𝑙𝑠)(3.0𝑠) + (−9.8𝑚/𝑠 2 )(3.0𝑠)2 = −44.1𝑚
2 2
After 3.00 s of free-fall, what is the velocity v of the stone in Figure above?

𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡 = 0𝑚/𝑠 + (−9.8𝑚/𝑠)(3.0𝑠) = −29.4𝑚/𝑠

Question 2

A football game customarily begins with a coin toss to determine who kicks off. The referee tosses
the coin up with an initial speed of 5.00 m /s. In the absence of air resistance, how high does the
coin go above its point of release?

Solution

𝑣 2 − 𝑣0 2 (0𝑚/𝑠)2 − (+5.0𝑚/𝑠)2
𝑦= = = 1.28𝑚
2𝑎 2(−9.80𝑚/𝑠 2 )
Reference Notes

Exercise

1. A stone is thrown at point (A) from the top of a building with initial velocity v = 20 m/s
straight up. The building is H = 50 m high, and the stone eust misses the edge of the roof
on its way down, as in the figure.

Calculate:

a) The time at which it reaches its maximum height. 0

b) Its maximum height above the rooftop.

c) The time at which it returns to the thrower’s hand.

d) Its velocity when it returns to the thrower’s hand.

e) Its velocity & position at time t = 5 s.

2. You throw a ball straight upward into the air with a velocity of 20.0 m/s, and you catch
the ball some time later.
a. How long is the ball in the air?
b. How high does the ball go?
3. The velocity of an obeect when it hits the ground is 10.0m/s. From what height was it
dropped. Find the time it took the obeect to hit the ground.
4. An obeect is dropped with an initial velocity of 10.0m/s and it takes 2.0s to hit the
ground. Find the height at which it was released. Calculate its velocity when it hits the
ground.
5. A sounding rockets is fired vertically at a constant acceleration of 20m/s2 and the fuel is
used up at the one minute mark. Calculate how high the rocket would climb.
6. A ball is thrown vertically upward from balcony at a height of 2.5m above the street. If
the time for the ball to hit the street is 3 s, find the initial upward velocity of the ball.
7. A rock is thrown vertically upward with an initial velocity of 2.0 m/s. if it hits the ground
with a velocity of 10.0m/s, calculate the height from which it was thrown.