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Database Systems
Data - Raw facts, or facts that have not yet been processed to reveal their meaning to the end user.
Information – The result of processing raw data to reveal its meaning. Information consists of transformed data and
facilities decision making. (Coronel and Morris, 2017, p. 4)
Database is a shared, integrated computer structure that houses a collection of the following:
• End-user data – that is, raw facts of interest to the end user.
• Metadata, or data about data, through which the end-user data is integrated and managed. (Coronel and Morris,
2017, p. 6).
Roles and Advantages of DBMS (Coronel and Morris, 2017)
A Database Management System (DBMS) is a collection of programs that manages the database structure and controls
access to the data stored in the database. The DBMS serves as the intermediary between the user and the database. The
database structure itself is stored as a collection of files, and the only way to access the data in those files is through the
DBMS.
Advantages of DBMS:
• Improved data sharing - The DBMS serves as the intermediary between the user and the database. The database
structure itself is stored as a collection of files, and the only way to access the data in those files is through the
DBMS.
• Improved data security - The more users access the data, the greater the risks of data security breaches.
Corporations invest considerable amounts of time, effort, and money to ensure that corporate data is used
properly. A DBMS provides a framework for better enforcement of data privacy and security policies.
• Better data integration - Wider access to well-managed data promotes an integrated view of the organization’s
operations and a clearer view of the big picture. It becomes much easier to see how actions in one segment of the
company affect other segments.
• Minimized data inconsistency - Data inconsistency exists when different versions of the same data appear in
different places.
• Improved data access - The DBMS makes it possible to produce quick answers to ad hoc queries. From a database
perspective, a query is a specific request issued to the DBMS for data manipulation—for example, to read or update
the data.
• Improved decision making - Better-managed data and improved data access make it possible to generate better-
quality information, on which better decisions are based. The quality of the information generated depends on the
quality of the underlying data.
• Increased end-user productivity - The availability of data, combined with the tools that transform data into usable
information, empowers end users to make quick, informed decisions that can make the difference between success
and failure in the global economy.
Types of Databases
Database Management System (DBMS) cab be used to build many different types of databases. The number of users
determines whether the database is classified as single user or multiuser.
Types of Databases:
• Single-user database – A type of database that supports only one user at a time.
• Desktop database – A single user database that runs on a personal computer.
• Multiuser database – A type of database that supports multiple users at the same time.
• Workgroup database – A type of database that supports a relatively small number of users or a specific department
within an organization.
• Enterprise database – A type of database that is used by the entire organization and supports many users across
many departments.
• Centralized database – A type of database that supports data located at a single site.
• Distributed database – A type of database that supports data distributed across several different sites.
• Cloud database – A database that is created and maintained using cloud services, such as Microsoft Azure or
Amazon AWS.
• General-purpose database – A database that contains a wide variety of data used in multiple disciplines.
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• Discipline-specific database – A type of database that contains data focused on specific subject areas.
• Operational database – A type of database designed primarily to support a company's day-to-day operations.
• Analytical database – A type of database focused primarily on storing historical data and business metrics used for
tactical or strategic decision making.
Importance of Database Design
Database Design refers to the activities that focus on the design of the database structure that will be used to store and
mange end-user data. A database that meets all user requirements does not just happen; its structure must be designed
carefully. In fact, database design is such as crucial aspect of working with databases that most of this book is dedicated to
the development of good database design techniques. (Coronel and Morris, 2017, p. 11)
Oftentimes the database design does not get the attention it deserves. This can occur for numerous reasons such as:
• Insufficient specifications and/or poor logical data modeling
• Not enough time in the development schedule
• Too many changes occurring throughout the development cycle
• Database design assigned to, or performed by novices
The first step in constructing a physical database should be transforming the logical design using best practices. The
transformation consists of the following:
• Transforming entities into tables
• Transforming attributes into columns
• Transforming domains into data types and constraints
• Transforming relationships into primary and foreign keys
File System Data Processing Issue (Coronel and Morris, 2017)
The file system method of organizing and managing data was a definite improvement over the manual system, and the file
system served as useful purpose in data management for over two (2) decades. Nonetheless, many problems and
limitations became evident in this approach.
A critique of the file system method serves two (2) major purposes:
• Understanding the shortcomings of the file system enable you to understand the development of modern
databases.
• Many of the problems are not unique to file systems. Failure to understand such problems is likely to lead their
duplication in a database environment, even though database technology makes it easy to avoid them.
The following problems associated with file systems, whether created by Data Processing (DP) specialist or through a series
of spreadsheets, severely challenge the types of information that can be created from the data as well as the accuracy of
the information:
• Lengthy development times – The first and most glaring problem with the file system approach is that even the
simplest data-retrieval task requires extensive programming. With the older file systems, programmers had to
specify what must be done and how to do it. As you will learn in upcoming chapters, modern databases use a
nonprocedural data manipulation language that allows the user to specify what must be done without specifying
how.
• Difficulty of getting quick answers – The need to write programs to produce even the simplest reports makes ad
hoc queries impossible.
• Complex system administration – System administration becomes more difficult as the number of files in the
system expands. Even a simple file system with a few files requires creating and maintaining several file
management programs.
• Lack of security and limited data sharing – Another fault of a file system data repository is a lack of security and
limited data sharing. Data sharing and security are closely related. Sharing data among multiple geographically
dispersed users introduces a log of security risks.
• Extensive programming – Making changes to an existing file structure can be difficult in a file system environment.
Structural dependence – A data characteristic in which a change in the database schema affects data access, thus requiring
changes in all access programs.
Structural independence – A data characteristic in which changes in the database schema do not affect data access.

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Data dependence – A data condition in which data representation and manipulation are dependent on the physical data
storage characteristics.
Data independence – A condition in which data access is unaffected by changes in the physical data storage characteristics.
Data redundancy – It exists when the same data is stored unnecessarily at different places.
Uncontrolled data redundancy sets the stage for the following:
• Poor data security – Having multiple copies of data increases the chances for a copy of the data to be susceptible
to unauthorized access.
• Data inconsistency – Data inconsistency exists when different and conflicting versions for the same data appear in
different places.
• Data-entry errors – Data-entry errors are more likely to occur when complex entries are made in several different
files or recur frequently in one or more files.
• Data integrity problems – It is possible to enter a nonexistent sales agent's name and phone number into the
Customer file, but customers are not likely to be impressed if the insurance agency supplies the name and phone
number of an agent who does not exist.
Data Anomalies
• A data abnormality in which inconsistent changes have been made to a database.
• A data anomaly develops when not all of the required changes in the redundant data are made successfully.

REFERENCES:
Coronel, C. and Morris, S. (2017). Database systems: design, implementation, and management, 12th edition. USA: Cengage Learning.
Elmasri, R. and Navathe, S. (2016). Fundamentals of database systems, 7th edition. USA: Pearson Higher Education.
Kroenke, D. and Auer, D. (2016). Database processing: fundamentals, design, and implementation. England: Pearson Education
Limited.

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Data Models
Database design focuses on how the database structure will be used to store and manage end-user data. Data Modeling,
the first step in designing a database, refers to the process of creating a specific data model for a determined problem
domain.
A data model is relatively simple representation, usually graphical, of more complex real-world data structures. In general
terms, a model is an abstraction of a more complex real-world object or event. (Coronel and Morris, 2017, p. 36)
Importance of Database Models (Coronel and Morris, 2017)
Data models can facilitate interaction among the designer, the applications programmer, and the end user. A well-
developed data model can even foster improved understanding of the organization for which the database design is
developed.
The importance of data modeling cannot be overstated. Data constitutes the most basic information used by a system.
Applications are created to manage data and to help transform data into information, but data is viewed in different ways
by different people.
Data Model Basic Building Blocks
Basic building blocks for data model are the following:
• Entity – It is a person, place, thing, or event about which data will be collected and stored.
• Attribute – It is a characteristic of an entity.
• Relationship – It describes an association among entities.
o Three (3) types of relationships:
• One-to-one (1:1) relationship
• One-to-many (1:M) relationship
• Many-to-many (M:M) relationship
Evolution of Data Models (Coronel and Morris 2017)
The quest for better data management has led to several models that attempt to resolve the previous model's critical
shortcomings and to provide solutions to ever-evolving data management needs. These models represent schools of
thought as to what a database is, what is should do, the types of structures that it should use, and the technology that
would be used to implement these structures.
Hierarchical Model
- It was developed in the 1960s to manage large amounts of data for complex manufacturing projects.
- The model's basic logical structure is represented by an upside-down tree. It contains levels, or segments.
- Segment is the equivalent of a file system's record type.
Network Model
- It was created to represent complex data relationships more effectively than the hierarchical model, to improve
database performance, and to impose a database standard.
- The network database model is generally used today, the standard database concepts that emerged with the
network model are still used by modern data models:
o Schema – It is the conceptual organization of the entire database as viewed by the database administrator.
o Subschema – It defines the portion of the database by the application programs that actually produce the
desired information from the data in the database.
o Data Manipulation Language (DML) – It defines the environment in which data can be managed.
o Data Definition Language (DDL) – It allows the database administrator to define the schema components.
Relational Model
- It was introduced in 1970 by E. F. Codd of IBM.
- The relational model represented a major breakthrough for both users and designers.
- The foundation of mathematical concept is known as a relation.
Entity Relationship Model
- It was introduced in 1976 by Peter Chen.
- The graphical representation of entities and their relationships in a database structure quickly became popular,
because it complemented the relational data model concepts.
- The relational data model and ERM are combined to provide the foundation for tightly structured database design.
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Object-Oriented Model
- Increasingly complex real-world problems demonstrated a need for a data model that more closely represented
the real world. In the Object-Oriented Data Model (OODM), both data and its relationships are contained in a single
structure known as an object. In turn, the OODM is the basis for the Object-Oriented Database Management System
(OODBMS).
- The OODM is said to be a semantic data model because it indicates meaning.
- The Object-Oriented Data Model is based on the following components:
o An object is an abstraction of a real-world entity
o Attributes describe the properties of an object.
o Objects that share similar characteristics are grouped in classes. A class is a collection of similar objects
with shared structure (attributes) and behavior (methods).
o Classes are organized in a class hierarchy. The class hierarchy resembles an upside-down tree in which each
class has only one parent.
o Inheritance is the ability of an object within the class hierarchy to inherit attributes.
o Object-oriented data models are typically depicted using Unified Modeling Language (UML) class diagrams.
UML is a language based on Object-Oriented concepts that describes a set of diagrams and symbols you
can use to graphically model a system.
Extensible Markup Language (XML) – A metalanguage used to represent and manipulate data elements. Unlike other
markup languages, XML permits the manipulation of a document's data elements.
Emerging Data Models: Big Data and NoSQL
Big Data
- It refers to a movement to find new and better ways to manage large amounts of web and sensor-generated data
and derive business insight from it, while simultaneously providing high performance and scalability at a reasonable
cost.
- The term seems to have been first used in a computing framework by John Mashey, Silicon Graphics scientist in the
1990s. However, it seems to be Douglas Laney, a data analyst from the Gartner Group, who first described the basic
characteristics of Big Data databases:
o Volume – It refer to the amounts of data being stored.
o Velocity – It refers not only to the speed with which data grows but also to the need to process this data
quickly in order to generate information and insight.
o Variety – It refers to the fact that the data being collected comes in multiple different data formats.
NoSQL
- It is a large-scale distributed database system that stores structured and unstructured data in efficient ways.
- Searching in Amazon, sending messages in Facebook, videos in YouTube, or searching for directions in Google
Maps, are examples of those that use a NoSQL database.
- The following are the general characteristics of NoSQL databases:
o They are not based on the relational model and SQL, hence the name NoSQL.
o They support distributed database architectures.
o They provide high scalability, high availability, and fault tolerance.
o They support very large amounts of sparse data.
o They are geared toward performance rather than transaction consistency.
- NoSQL supports distributed database architecture – One of the big advantages of NoSQL databases is that
they generally use a distributed database node.
- NoSQL supports very large amounts of sparse data – NoSQL databases can handle very high volumes of data. In
particular, they are suited for sparse data – that is, for cases in which the number of attributes is very large but the
number of actual data instances is low.
- NoSQL provides high scalability, high availability, and fault tolerance – True to its web origins, NoSQL databases
are designed to support web operations, such as the ability to add capacity in the form of nodes to the distributed
database when the demand is high, and to do it transparently and without downtime.
- Most NoSQL databases are geared toward performance rather than transactions consistency – One of the
biggest problems if very large distributed databases are enforcing data consistency. Distributed databases
automatically make copies of data elements at multiple nodes to ensure high availability and fault tolerance.

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Degrees of Data Abstraction

In early 1970s, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Standards Planning and Requirements Committee (SPARC)
defined a framework for data modeling based on degrees of data abstraction. The resulting ANSI/SPARC architecture
defines three (3) levels of data abstraction: external, conceptual, and internal (Coronel and Morris, 2017, p. 60).
External Model
- It is the end user's view of the data environment.
- It refers to people who use the application programs to manipulate the data and generate information.
- ER diagrams will be used to represent the external views. A specific representation of an external view is known as
an external schema.
Conceptual Model
- It represents a global view of the entire database by the entire organization.
- Also known as a conceptual schema, it is the basis for the identification and high-level description of the main data
objects.
Internal Model
- It is the representation of the database as "seen" by the DBMS.
- It requires the designer to match the conceptual model's characteristics and constraints to those of the selected
implementation model.
- Internal schema depicts a specific representation of an internal model, using the database constructs supported
by the chosen database.
Physical Model operates at the lowest level of abstraction, describing the way data is saved on storage media such as
magnetic, solid state, or optical media. The physical model requires the definition of both the physical storage devices and
the (physical) access methods required to reach the data within those storage devices, making it both software and
hardware dependent (Coronel and Morris, 2017, p. 63).

REFERENCES:
Coronel, C. and Morris, S. (2017). Database systems: design, implementation, and management, 12th edition. USA: Cengage Learning.
Elmasri, R. and Navathe, S. (2016). Fundamentals of database systems, 7th edition. USA: Pearson Higher Education.
Kroenke, D. and Auer, D. (2016). Database processing: fundamentals, design, and implementation. England: Pearson Education
Limited.

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