UNIT III

Communication Networks

A communication network is a broader term that refers to a system that enables the transfer of
data between various devices, often using a combination of hardware, software, and
communication protocols. It connects devices across various distances and environments,
including LANs, Wide Area Networks (WANs), Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs), and
global networks like the internet. These networks employ different communication
technologies and standards such as TCP/IP, HTTP, FTP, and others to manage data exchange
efficiently.

Types of Communication Networks:

1. LAN (Local Area Network): A network within a limited area, such as a building or campus.

2. WAN (Wide Area Network): A network that spans a larger geographical area, such as cities
or countries.

3. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): A network that connects devices within a specific city
or region.

4. PAN (Personal Area Network): A small-scale network used for connecting personal devices
like smartphones, tablets, or laptops.
Communication networks rely on various devices like routers, switches, modems, and
gateways for routing, switching, and managing data traffic. They use physical media such as
copper wires, fibre optics, or wireless connections for data transmission.

Communication Network

A communication network is a system that allows the exchange of data and information
between computers, servers, and other devices. It enables communication through wired or
wireless connections over small or large distances.

Types of Communication Networks

1. Wired Networks – Uses physical cables such as Ethernet, Fiber Optic, or Coaxial
cables for data transmission.

2. Wireless Networks – Uses radio waves such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Infrared, or

Satellite communication for connectivity.

3. Local Area Network (LAN) – Covers a small area such as an office or home.

4. Wide Area Network (WAN) – Covers large distances, like cities or even countries
(e.g., the Internet).
 5. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) – Covers a city or a large campus.

6. Personal Area Network (PAN) – Small-scale network used for personal devices
(Bluetooth, Hotspot).

Components of a Communication Network

 Nodes – Devices like computers, routers, and switches that send and receive data.

 Links – The medium used for data transfer, such as cables or wireless signals.

 Protocols – Rules governing communication (e.g., TCP/IP, HTTP, FTP).

 Router – A device that directs data between different networks.

 Switch – Connects multiple devices in a network and manages data traffic

Advantages of Communication Networks

Resource Sharing – Allows multiple users to share hardware, software, and files.
Cost-Effective – Reduces costs by sharing network infrastructure.
Scalability – Can expand by adding more devices.
Remote Access – Enables users to access data from anywhere.
Disadvantages of Communication Networks

Security Threats – Vulnerable to hacking and cyber-attacks.

Maintenance Costs – Requires regular updates and technical support.
Network Congestion – Too many users can slow down performance.
Hardware Failure – A faulty router or server can disrupt communication.

Local Area Network (LAN)

What is LAN?

A Local Area Network (LAN) is a type of communication network that connects computers
and other devices within a small geographical area, such as a home, office, school, or campus.
It allows users to share resources like files, printers, and internet connections.

Characteristics of LAN:

1. Limited Area Coverage – Operates within a small area (up to a few kilometers).
 2. High-Speed Data Transfer – Speed ranges from 10 Mbps to 10 Gbps.

3. Wired or Wireless – Can use Ethernet cables (wired LAN) or Wi-Fi (wireless LAN).

4. Resource Sharing – Enables shared access to printers, files, and internet.

5. Centralized Control – Often managed by a server in a client-server LAN.

Types of LAN:

1. Wired LAN – Uses Ethernet cables and switches for connection.

2. Wireless LAN (WLAN) – Uses Wi-Fi technology to connect devices without cables.

3. Peer-to-Peer LAN – All devices communicate directly without a central server.

4. Client-Server LAN – A central server manages the network and resources.

Advantages of LAN:

High-Speed Communication – Faster than WAN and MAN.

Cost-Effective – Requires fewer resources compared to larger networks.

Secure & Private – Limited access reduces security risks.

Resource Sharing – Devices can share printers, storage, and files.

Easy Maintenance – Troubleshooting is simpler than in larger networks.

Disadvantages of LAN:

Limited Range – Only works within a small area.

Initial Setup Cost – Requires routers, switches, and cabling.

Network Congestion – Too many users can slow down performance.

Security Threats – Needs strong security to prevent unauthorized access.

LAN and Communication Network
A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that connects computers and devices within a
limited area, such as a home, office, or campus. It allows users to share resources like files,
printers, and internet connections.

1. Features of LAN:

Limited Coverage: Covers a small geographic area (e.g., a building or a few kilometers).
High Speed: Typically ranges from 10 Mbps to 10 Gbps.
Wired or Wireless: Can be Ethernet-based (wired) or Wi-Fi-based (wireless).
Resource Sharing: Enables sharing of files, software, and hardware devices.

2. Components of LAN:

Switches & Routers: Direct data between devices.

Network Interface Card (NIC): Helps devices connect to the network.
Cables (Ethernet) / Wireless Access Points: Used for communication.
Servers & Clients: Servers manage resources; clients access them.

3. Types of Communication Networks:

PAN (Personal Area Network): Short-range, used for personal devices (e.g., Bluetooth).
LAN (Local Area Network): Connects devices in a small area.
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): Covers a city (e.g., cable TV networks).
WAN (Wide Area Network): Covers large distances (e.g., the Internet).

Diagram of a LAN Network:

[Server]
|
—
| | |
[PC1] [PC2] [Printer]
 |
[Wi-Fi Router] ----- [Laptop]
[Smartphone]
In this LAN diagram, all devices are connected to a central switch/router, allowing
communication and resource sharing.

MAN & WAN

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a type of network that spans a city or a large
campus, typically larger than a Local Area Network (LAN) but smaller than a Wide Area
Network (WAN). It connects multiple LANs within a specific geographic area such as a city
or town, offering high-speed data transmission and networking services.

Key Characteristics of MAN:

1. Geographic Coverage:

o Covers a metropolitan area, which could range from 5 to 50 kilometers.

o It can be used to connect different buildings or locations within the same city.

2. Infrastructure:

o MANs often use fiber optic cables, microwave transmission, or wireless

communication to provide high-speed connections between LANs.
 o It may be owned by a single organization, a group of companies, or a service
provider.

3. Data Transfer Speed:

o Offers faster data transfer rates compared to LANs, typically ranging from 1
Gbps to 10 Gbps or even more.

4. Applications:

o Used by businesses and governments to connect multiple locations within a

city.

o For connecting public services such as video surveillance, municipal Wi-Fi, or

telemedicine.

5. Example:

o A city-wide network providing internet and communication services to

multiple buildings, schools, or businesses within a city.

Advantages of MAN:

1. Faster Speeds: Generally offers faster data transmission speeds than WAN, making it
suitable for organizations or businesses within a metropolitan region.

2. Cost-Effective: Compared to WAN, setting up and maintaining a MAN is usually

more affordable because the infrastructure is confined to a specific geographic area.

3. High Bandwidth: Provides high bandwidth, which can support a large number of
users or data traffic within the metropolitan area.

4. Efficient Resource Sharing: MAN facilitates efficient sharing of resources (such as

printers, servers, and data storage) among multiple locations within the city or region.

Disadvantages of MAN:

1. Limited Coverage: Its coverage is restricted to a city or metropolitan area, so it

doesn’t extend over larger distances.

2. Infrastructure Cost: The initial setup of a MAN can still be costly, particularly in a
large city, due to the need for high-speed cables, switches, routers, and other hardware.
 3. Susceptibility to Local Issues: If there’s a failure in the network infrastructure within
the metropolitan area (e.g., due to a power outage or natural disaster), it can impact
the entire network.

4. Management Complexity: Managing a MAN with several interconnected buildings

can be complex, especially in terms of security, maintenance, and upgrades.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

A Wide Area Network (WAN) is a telecommunications network that covers a large

geographic area, often spanning cities, countries, or even continents. It connects multiple
smaller networks, such as LANs or MANs, across long distances. The most common example
of a WAN is the internet.

Key Characteristics of WAN:

1. Geographic Coverage:

o Can span cities, countries, or continents.

o WANs are typically used to connect remote or distributed LANs across vast
distances.

2. Infrastructure:

o WANs often rely on leased telecommunication lines, satellite links, fiber

optic cables, and public/private networks to provide connections between
distant locations.

o Telecom companies or ISPs (Internet Service Providers) generally manage

WANs.

3. Data Transfer Speed:

o WAN speeds can vary widely, but they tend to be slower than those of LANs
and MANs due to the longer distances and more complex infrastructure
involved.

o Common WAN speeds can range from 56 Kbps (dial-up) to several Gbps
(fiber-optic connections).
 4. Applications:

o Connecting corporate offices, branches, or data centers in different cities or

countries.

o Internet service (as the global WAN).

o Cloud computing, connecting users to distributed servers worldwide.

5. Example:

o The internet is the largest example of a WAN, connecting millions of users and
organizations worldwide.

o A multinational corporation might use a WAN to connect its offices across

several countries to share data and resources.

Comparison:

Feature Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) Wide Area Network (WAN)

National or global (city-to-city, country-

Scope City or metropolitan area
to-country)

Spans large distances (e.g., between

Distance Typically 5-50 km (within a city)
countries or continents)

Varies; generally lower than MAN (can

Speed Higher speeds (1-10 Gbps)
be up to several Gbps)

Can be owned by private Usually owned by telecommunication

Ownership
organizations or government entities providers or ISPs

Leased lines, satellite, fiber optics, VPN,

Technology Fiber optics, wireless, microwave
MPLS

City-wide internet service, university The internet, inter-office networks

Example
campus network between different countries

In essence, a MAN is designed to cover a city-sized area with high-speed data transmission,
whereas a WAN is more vast and designed for connecting networks over large geographical
areas, like across countries or globally.
Advantages of WAN:

1. Global Coverage: WAN provides connectivity over vast geographical areas, such as
across multiple cities, countries, or continents.

2. Scalability: WANs are highly scalable, allowing for the addition of new locations or
users without major disruptions to the existing network.

3. Centralized Data Access: It allows organizations to connect branch offices, remote

workers, and other locations to a centralized data center, facilitating better data
sharing and communication.

4. Redundancy: With its large reach, WANs can have built-in redundancy options (such
as multiple connections) to ensure minimal downtime and better reliability.

Disadvantages of WAN:

1. High Cost: The cost of setting up and maintaining a WAN is usually very high,
especially if it involves international connections or the use of leased lines and
satellite links.

2. Slower Speeds: WANs tend to have slower data transfer speeds compared to LANs
and MANs due to the vast distances involved in the network and the higher potential
for congestion.

3. Latency: With large geographical areas, WANs may experience higher latency, which
can slow down real-time communication or applications requiring quick responses.

4. Complex Management: Managing a WAN can be highly complex due to its scale
and the number of devices involved. It may require sophisticated monitoring and
security measures to maintain its efficiency and reliability.

Architecture Diagram:
MAN

WAN
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
Definition:
A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a network that covers a city or a large geographic area,
connecting multiple Local Area Networks (LANs). It is larger than a LAN but smaller than a Wide
Area Network (WAN).

Characteristics:
- Covers a city-wide or metropolitan area (10-50 km).
- Provides medium to high-speed data transmission.
- Uses fiber optics, DSL, or wireless connections.
- Typically maintained by internet service providers (ISPs), government bodies, or large organizations.

Examples:
- City-wide Wi-Fi provided by municipalities.
- Cable TV networks offering broadband services.
- University campuses spread across a city with interconnected networks.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

Definition:
A Wide Area Network (WAN) is a network that spans multiple cities, countries, or continents. It
connects multiple LANs and MANs using long-distance communication technologies. The Internet is
the largest example of a WAN.

Characteristics:
- Covers large geographical areas (hundreds to thousands of kilometers).
- Lower speed than LAN/MAN due to long-distance data transmission.
- Uses leased communication lines, satellites, fiber optics, and MPLS (Multiprotocol Label
Switching).
- Managed by telecom providers, multinational corporations, or governments.

Examples:
- The Internet as a global network.
- Multinational company networks connecting offices worldwide.
- Banking networks linking ATMs and branches across a country.

Conclusion
- MAN is used for city-wide communication and connects multiple LANs within a city.
- WAN is used for long-distance communication, interconnecting networks across cities and countries.

MAN:
● A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a type of computer network that spans over
a metropolitan area, typically a city.
● It provides high-speed data communication services such as video, audio, and data
transfer between multiple LANs (Local Area Networks) and WANs (Wide Area Networks).
● The main purpose of a MAN is to connect different LANs in a city to share resources
and exchange data, as well as to provide internet access to users.
● A MAN typically covers a geographic area of several kilometers and is larger than a
LAN but smaller than a WAN.
 ● MANs can be both wired and wireless. Wired MANs use fiber optic cables for high-
speed connectivity, while wireless MANs use radio frequencies for communication.
● MANs can be classified into two types: synchronous and asynchronous. Synchronous
MANs use a clock to ensure that all data is transmitted at the same speed, while
asynchronous MANs do not use a clock and rely on start and stop bits to indicate the
beginning and end of each data packet.

Characteristics of MAN
● It can covers the area which ranges from 5 to 50 km, which is capable of carrying
from a group of buildings to the whole city.
● In MAN, data rates are moderate to high.
● In MAN, mostly used medium is optical fibers which results in high-speed
connectivity.
● MAN networks provides high reliability because the error rate in this network is very
less.
● A MAN network can use a variety of access technologies, such as wireless, fiber-
optic, or copper-based connections, to provide connectivity to different devices and networks.
● Hybrid topology: A MAN network may use a combination of different topologies,
such as a ring, bus, or star topology, depending on the specific requirements of the network.

ADVANTAGES OF MAN:
 ● MAN offers high-speed connectivity in which the speed ranges from 10-100 Mbps.
● The security level in MAN is high and strict as compared to WAN
● It supports transmitting data in both directions concurrently because of dual bus
architecture.
● MAN can serve multiple users at a time with the same high-speed internet to all the
users.
● MAN allows for centralized management and control of the network, making it
easier to monitor and manage network resources and security.

Disadvantages of MAN
● The architecture of MAN is quite complicated hence, it is hard to design and
maintain.
● This network is highly expensive because it required the high cost to set up fiber
optics.
● It provides less fault tolerance.
● The Data transfer rate in MAN is low when compare to LANs.

Examples of MAN
● Cable TV network.
● Used in government agencies.
● University campuses.
● Used in hospitals to connect multiple buildings

WAN:
● WAN stands for Wide Area Network. It is a computer network that covers a large
geographical area consisting of two or more LANs or MANs.
● These networks are established with leased telecommunication circuits, in which two
sides which are connected have routers that connect the LAN of both sides together in a
network to facilitate communication.
● The connection can be circuit-switched telephone lines, radio wave transmission or
optical fiber transmission.
 ● It is used to exchange data with users all over the world, they can be client, employee,
buyer, seller, student, etc.
● WAN has the ability to transmit data, image, audio data, video data over large
distances.

Types of WAN Technologies:

There are a few main technologies that are used in the WAN network design.

Circuit switching:
Circuit switched networks operate on the virtual connection principle, which dictates that all messages will
take the same way and that resources along this path are set aside for this connection. A certain path is
determined for the connection.
Packet Switching:
The size of a packet in a packet switched network is dictated by the outgoing link, and these packets may
follow different route. These packets are ready to collected and reassembled at the destination.

CIRCUIT SWITCHING DIAGRAM:

Characteristics of WAN
● Broader Reach: The reach of WAN in terms coverage of geographical area is very
high which can be a region, country or the world itself.
● Higher Capacity: The capacity of WAN in terms of number of LANs or WANs
connected in a network is very high, which results in connection of large number of user

PACKET SWITCHING DIAGRAM:

over

different location all around the globe.

 ● WAN uses telephone networks, cabled system, satellites etc for connection and
transmission purpose which are easily available.
● Resource Sharing: WAN enables its users to share data and information over large
area. Computer resources can be accessed remotely which makes transmission and exchange
of data very easy.
Advantages of WAN
● It covers large geographical area which enhances the reach of organisation to
transmit data quickly and cheaply.
● The data can be stored in centralised manner because of remote access to data
provided by WAN.
● The travel charges that are needed to cover the geographical area of work can be
minimised.
● WAN enables a user or organisation to connect with the world very easily and allows
to exchange data and do business at global level.
Disadvantages of WAN
● The fault tolerance ability of WAN is very less.
● Noise and error are present in large amount due to multiple connection point.
● The data transfer rate is slow in comparison to LAN because of large distances and
high number of connected system within the network.

Examples of WAN:
● The internet: The world's largest WAN, connecting billions of devices worldwide
● Bank networks: Connect branch offices, ATMs, and employees to the main office
● Satellite WANs: Connect remote locations to the internet using satellite dishes and
links
4G/5G LTE WANs: Use cellular networks to provide high-speed internet connectivity

WAN
A Wide Area Network (WAN) is a telecommunications network that spans a large geographical area,
connecting multiple smaller networks, such as LANs and MANs, using leased lines, satellites, or fiber
optics. The internet is the largest example of a WAN.
Advantages of WAN

1. Enables long-distance communication and data exchange.

2. Supports large-scale business and organizational operations.
3. Provides centralized data storage and access.
4. Offers redundancy and disaster recovery options.

Features of WAN

1. Covers vast geographical regions (countries or continents).

2. Uses routers, switches, and dedicated communication links.
3. Can be private (corporate networks) or public (internet).
4. Supports various technologies like MPLS, VPNs, and cloud computing.

WAN Network Arrangements

1. Point-to-Point: Direct link between two locations.

2. Hub-and-Spoke: Centralized hub connects multiple branch offices.
3. Mesh Topology: Each node connects to multiple others for redundancy.

MAN
A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a network that covers a city or large campus, interconnecting
multiple LANs using high-speed fiber optics or wireless links.
Advantages of MAN
1. High-speed communication for businesses and organizations.
2. More cost-effective than WAN for regional networking.
3. Enables smart city applications and public Wi-Fi services.
4. Supports cloud access and data center connectivity.
Features of MAN

1. Covers a city or metropolitan region.

2. Utilizes fiber-optic and wireless broadband technologies.
3. Provides faster speeds than WAN, typically up to 10 Gbps.
4. Supports multiple organizations and public networks.

MAN Network Arrangements

1. Ring Topology: Nodes form a closed-loop for redundancy.

2. Bus Topology: All nodes connect to a central backbone.
3. Hybrid Topology: Combination of different topologies for efficiency.

Modern Wireless Communication in WAN & MAN

1. 5G and Wi-Fi 6 improve network performance and coverage.

2. Satellite Internet (e.g., Starlink) extends WAN connectivity.
3. IoT and Smart City Networks enhance MAN applications.
4. Cloud-Based WAN (SD-WAN) optimizes performance and security.

WAN and MAN play crucial roles in modern networking, supporting enterprises, governments, and smart
city infrastructures worldwide.

A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a type of computer network that spans over a metropolitan area,
typically a city. It provides high-speed data communication services such as video, audio, and data transfer
between multiple LANs (Local Area Networks) and WANs (Wide Area Networks). The main purpose of a
MAN is to connect different LANs in a city to share resources and exchange data, as well as to provide
internet access to users. A MAN typically covers a geographic area of several kilometers and is larger than a
LAN but smaller than a WAN.
MAN stands for Metropolitan Area Network. It is a computer network that connects number of LANs to
form larger network, so that the computer resources can be shared. This type of network covers larger area
than a LAN but smaller than the area covered by a WAN which is designed to extend over the entire city.
MAN is specially designed to provide high-speed connectivity to the users in which the speed ranges in
terms of Mbps. The architecture of MAN is quite complicated hence,it is hard to design and maintain.

MAN in Computer Networking

Characteristics of MAN

It can covers the area which ranges from 5 to 50 km, which is capable of carrying from a group of buildings
to the whole city.

In MAN, data rates are moderate to high.

In MAN, mostly used medium is optical fibers which results in high-speed connectivity.

MAN networks provides high reliability because the error rate in this network is very less.

A MAN network can use a variety of access technologies, such as wireless, fiber-optic, or copper-based
connections, to provide connectivity to different devices and networks.

Hybrid topology: A MAN network may use a combination of different topologies, such as a ring, bus, or
star topology, depending on the specific requirements of the network.

Advantages of MAN
MAN offers high-speed connectivity in which the speed ranges from 10-100 Mbps.

The security level in MAN is high and strict as compared to WAN.

It support to transmit data in both directions concurrently because of dual bus architecture.
MAN can serve multiple users at a time with the same high-speed internet to all the users.

MAN allows for centralized management and control of the network, making it easier to monitor and
manage network resources and security.

Disadvantages of MAN

The architecture of MAN is quite complicated hence, it is hard to design and maintain.

This network is highly expensive because it required the high cost to set up fiber optics.

It provides less fault tolerance.

The Data transfer rate in MAN is low when compare to LANs.

Examples of MAN

Cable TV network.
Used in government agencies.
University campuses.
Used in hospitals to connect multiple buildings

Uses of MAN Network

A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) has several uses, including:

Resource Sharing: A MAN allows multiple LANs in a metropolitan area to share resources such as printers,
storage devices, and other peripherals.

Data Exchange: A MAN provides a high-speed communication channel for the exchange of data between
different LANs.

Internet Access: A MAN can provide high-speed internet access to users in a metropolitan area.
Circuit Switching
Circuit Switching is a type of switching, in which a connection is established between the source and
destination before communication. This connection receives the complete bandwidth of the network until
the data is transferred completely. However, circuit switching can be inefficient and costly due to its
requirement for dedicated resources, making it less suitable for high-traffic or large-scale networks. In this
article, we will discuss every point about Circuit Switching.

What is Circuit Switching?

In circuit switching network resources (bandwidth) are divided into pieces and the bit delay is constant
during a connection. The dedicated path/circuit established between the sender and receiver provides a
guaranteed data rate. Data can be transmitted without any delays once the circuit is established.

Phases of Circuit Switching

Circuit Establishment: A dedicated circuit between the source and destination is constructed via a number
of intermediary switching center’s. Communication signals can be requested and received when the sender
and receiver communicate signals over the circuit.
Data Transfer: Data can be transferred between the source and destination once the circuit has been
established. The link between the two parties remains as long as they communicate.
Circuit Disconnection: Disconnection in the circuit occurs when one of the users initiates the disconnect.
When the disconnection occurs, all intermediary linkages between the sender and receiver are terminated.

Advantages of Circuit Switching

The main advantage of circuit switching is that a committed transmission channel is established between
the computers which give a guaranteed data rate.

In circuit switching, there is no delay in data flow because of the dedicated transmission path.
Reliability: Circuit switching provides a high level of reliability since the dedicated communication path is
reserved for the entire duration of the communication. This ensures that the data will be transmitted without
any loss or corruption.

Quality of service: Circuit switching provides a guaranteed quality of service, which means that the
network can prioritize certain types of traffic, such as voice and video, over other types of traffic, such as
email and web browsing.

Security: Circuit switching provides a higher level of security compared to packet switching since the
dedicated communication path is only accessible to the two communicating parties. This can help prevent
unauthorized access and Data breaches.

Ease of management: Circuit switching is relatively easy to manage since the communication path is pre-
established and dedicated to a specific communication. This can help simplify network management and
reduce the risk of errors.

Disadvantages of Circuit Switching

Limited scalability: Circuit switching is not well-suited for large-scale networks with many nodes, as it
requires a dedicated communication path between each pair of nodes. This can result in a high degree of
complexity and difficulty in managing the network.

Vulnerability to failures: Circuit switching relies on a dedicated communication path, which can make the
network vulnerable to failures, such as cable cuts or switch failures. In the event of a failure, the
communication path must be re-established, which can result in delays or loss of data.

Limited Flexibility: Circuit switching is not flexible as it requires a dedicated circuit between the
communicating devices. The circuit cannot be used Waste of Resources for any other purpose until the
communication is complete, which limits the flexibility of the network.

Waste of Resources: Circuit switching reserves the bandwidth and network resources for the duration of the
communication, even if there is no data being transmitted. This results in the wastage of resources and
inefficient use of the network.
 Switching Multistage Switching

Time Division Switching

In communication systems, FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA are three different methods used to share a
single communication channel among multiple users. Understanding these methods helps us see how
multiple users can efficiently share communication channels without interference.

FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access) divides the channel into separate frequency bands for each
user. TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) assigns different time slots to each user on the same
frequency. CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) uses unique codes to differentiate users sharing the
same frequency band at the same time. In this article, we are going to discuss the differences between these
communication channels in detail.

What is FDMA?

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA): FDMA is a type of channelization protocol. This
bandwidth is divided into various frequency bands. Each station is allocated a band to send data and that
band is reserved for the particular station for all the time which is as follows.

FDMA

The frequency bands of different stations are separated by small bands of unused frequency and unused
frequency bands are called as guard bands that prevent the interference of stations. It is like the access
method in the data link layer in which the data link layer at each station tells its physical layer to make a
bandpass signal from the data passed to it. The signal is created in the allocated band and there is no
physical multiplexer at the physical layer.
Advantages of FDMA

 FDMA uses simple hardware resources and is easy to set up.

 It efficiently handles smaller groups of users.

 The system isn’t overly complicated.

 All stations can transmit continuously without waiting their turn.

 It lowers the amount of data transmitted, which can increase capacity.

 It reduces interference between symbols, improving communication quality.

Disadvantages of FDMA

 FDMA works only with analog signals.

 It lacks flexibility, so existing traffic patterns must change gradually.

 Transponders need extensive bandwidth.

 It doesn’t support high traffic capacity.

 RF filters must meet strict adjacent channel rejection standards, which can increase costs.

 The maximum bit rate per channel is small and remains fixed.

What is TDMA?
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) : TDMA is the channelization protocol in which bandwidth of
channel is divided into various stations on the time basis. There is a time slot given to each station, the
station can transmit data during that time slot only which is as following.
Each station must aware of its beginning of time slot and the location of the time slot. TDMA requires
synchronization between different stations. It is type of access method in the data link layer. At each
station data link layer tells the station to use the allocated time slot.

Advantages of TDMA

 As cell sizes decrease, TDMA requires substantial investment in space, support, and base-station
 hardware.

 It can transmit data at speeds ranging from 64 kbps to 120 Mbps.

 TDMA separates users based on time, ensuring no interference from simultaneous transmissions.

 It supports services like fax, voiceband data, SMS, multimedia applications, and video conferencing.

 TDMA extends battery life by allowing devices to transmit only part of the time during
conversations.

 It effectively handles both data transmission and voice communication needs.

Disadvantages of TDMA

 If all time slots in the current cell and the next cell are occupied, users allocated specific slots may
not
 connect to a call.

 Frequency/slot allocation in TDMA can be complex.

 High data rates in TDMA require equalization.

 Network and spectrum planning in TDMA is complex and time-consuming, needing expertise and
 resources.
  TDMA focuses on organization and range planning.

What is CDMA?

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) : In CDMA, all the stations can transmit data simultaneously. It
allows each station to transmit data over the entire frequency all the time. Multiple simultaneous
transmissions are separated by unique code sequence. Each user is assigned with a unique code sequence.

Advantages of CDMA

 CDMA has a very high spectral capacity, supporting many users within a wide bandwidth.

 It doesn’t require synchronization between users.

 CDMA channels are hard to decode, improving cellular communication security.

 It provides better secure transmission capabilities.

 Dropouts only occur when the user is twice the distance from the base station.

Disadvantages of CDMA

 CDMA faces channel pollution when a user’s phone connects to multiple cell sites, but only
one has
 strong signal.

 CDMA isn’t as mature as

 GSM sinnce it’s newer.CDMA requires time synchronization.

 Performance of the CDMA system decreases as the number of users increases.

  CDMA equipment tends to be more expensive due to its complexity.

Circuit Switching
Circuit Switching is a method of communication where a dedicated path is established
between two devices for the entire duration of the communication session. It is commonly
used in traditional telephone networks.

1. Features of Circuit Switching:

Dedicated Path: A fixed route is reserved for the entire conversation.

Three Phases:

1. Connection Establishment: A path is set up between sender and receiver.

2. Data Transfer: Continuous data flow occurs over the reserved path.

3. Connection Termination: The link is released after communication ends.

Reliable Communication: Ensures continuous and ordered data delivery.

Inefficient for Data Traffic: If no data is sent, the reserved path remains unused, wasting
resources.

2. Examples of Circuit Switching:

Traditional landline telephone systems.

PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network).

ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network).

Diagram of Circuit Switching:

[Sender] --- (Switch 1) --- (Switch 2) --- (Switch 3) --- [Receiver]
➡ A dedicated path is established from the sender to the receiver before communication
begins.

Circuit Switching in Modern Wireless Communication

Introduction

Circuit switching is a method of communication in which a dedicated communication path is established

between two nodes for the duration of a transmission session. It has been traditionally used in telephony
and early wired networks. However, with the evolution of wireless communication, circuit switching has
been gradually replaced by more efficient packet-switched networks. Despite this, circuit switching still
plays a role in some modern wireless communication systems.
Principles of Circuit Switching

Circuit switching operates in three main phases:

1. Establishment Phase: A dedicated communication path is set up between the sender and receiver before
the data transfer begins.

2. Data Transfer Phase: The actual communication occurs over the established path.

3. Termination Phase: The connection is terminated after the communication is complete, releasing the
resources.

Circuit Switching in Wireless Networks

While circuit switching is primarily associated with traditional telephone networks, it has been
implemented in early-generation wireless communication systems such as:

- 1G Networks (Analog Cellular Systems): Used circuit switching for voice communication.

- 2G Networks (GSM - Global System for Mobile Communication): Implemented circuit-

switched voice calls and Short Message Service (SMS). Later, data services like Circuit-
Switched Data (CSD) were introduced.

Limitations of Circuit Switching in Modern Wireless Communication

Modern wireless networks have largely transitioned to packet switching due to the following limitations of
circuit switching:

1. Inefficient Resource Utilization: Dedicated channels remain occupied even during silence periods in a
conversation.
2. Scalability Issues: It cannot handle a large number of users efficiently in high-traffic networks.

3. Lack of Flexibility: Circuit switching is not well-suited for modern applications like internet browsing,
video streaming, and cloud-based services.

Transition to Packet Switching

With the advent of 3G and later generations of wireless networks, packet switching became the dominant
communication method. Some key developments include:

- 3G (UMTS and CDMA2000): Introduced packet-switched data services while still

supporting circuit-switched voice calls.

- 4G LTE (Long-Term Evolution): Completely transitioned to packet-switched networks,

replacing traditional circuit-switched voice with Voice over LTE (VoLTE).

- 5G Networks: Further enhance packet-switched communication with ultra-low latency and

higher reliability, making circuit switching obsolete.

Circuit Switching in Legacy Systems

Despite its decline, circuit switching is still used in some scenarios:

- Emergency Services: Some legacy systems use circuit-switched communication for

emergency calls.

- Rural and Remote Areas: In areas with limited infrastructure, older circuit-switched
networks may still be in use.
 - Fallback Mechanisms: Some networks provide circuit-switched fallback (CSFB) for voice
calls when packet-switched VoLTE is unavailable.

Conclusion

Circuit switching played a significant role in early wireless communication but has largely been replaced by
packet-switched technologies in modern networks. While it still exists in certain legacy systems and
specific applications, the future of wireless communication is centered around efficient, high-speed packet-
switched networks that cater to the growing demand for data-driven services.

What is Packet Switching?

Packet switching is a method used to move data across a packet switching network. Instead of sending your
data in one big piece, it breaks it down into smaller chunks called "packets." Each of these packets can
travel independently through the network, taking different paths to reach the same destination.

Technologies like Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE) are often used to encapsulate these packets,
allowing them to traverse different networks securely and efficiently.
Once they arrive, they’re reassembled into the original message or file. Think of it like sending a big puzzle
through the mail, one piece at a time, and then putting it all back together once it arrives.

How Packet Switching Works

Here’s how it works. When you send something over a packet data network, whether it’s an email, a video,
or a file, the data is divided into these packets. Each packet has a destination address, a sequence number,
and a small piece of the overall data. These packets then hop from one router to another across the
network—these are the network hops. At each hop, the router looks at the packet’s destination address and
decides the best route to send it along. This method makes the network super flexible because even if one
path is busy or down, the packets can take a different route, ensuring your data still gets through. This built-
in flexibility is what we call network redundancy.

Types of Packet Switching

There are mainly two types of packet switching: datagram packet switching and virtual circuit packet
switching.

Datagram Packet Switching: In this method, each packet is treated independently. It’s like sending a bunch
of postcards—each one could take a different route and arrive at different times, but they all eventually get
there.

Virtual Circuit Packet Switching: Here, a pre-determined path is set up before any packets are sent. All the
packets follow this path, arriving in order and without the need for reordering at the destination. It’s more
like a train on a track—everything follows the same path, and it all arrives together.

Advantages of Packet Switching

So, why use packet switching? Here are a few big reasons:
Efficiency: Because packets can take different routes to avoid congestion, the network is used more
efficiently. This means you can have multiple communications going on simultaneously without slowing
things down.
Reliability: If one path in the network goes down, the packets can simply take another path. This is the
network redundancy I mentioned earlier, and it helps keep things running smoothly even if parts of the
network fail.

Scalability: As more devices connect to the internet, packet switching makes it easy to handle the increased
traffic without needing massive upgrades to the network.

Disadvantages of Packet Switching

Of course, packet switching isn’t perfect. Here are a few downsides:
Delay: Because packets can take different paths, they might arrive out of order, causing a slight delay as the
data is reassembled. For most things, this isn’t a big deal, but for real-time services like video calls, it can
be noticeable.

Complexity: Managing a packet switching network is more complicated than other types of networks, like
circuit switching. It requires more advanced technology to keep track of all the packets and make sure they
get where they need to go.

Overhead: Each packet needs extra information (like the destination address and sequence number), which
adds a bit of overhead to the data being sent. This can slightly reduce the overall efficiency of the network.

Conclusion
Packet switching is the backbone of modern communication networks. It’s what makes the
internet fast, efficient, and reliable, allowing data to move quickly and flexibly from one place to
another.
Packet Switching in Modern Wireless Communication Systems

1. Introduction to Packet Switching

Packet switching is a method of data transmission where information is broken into small packets,
transmitted independently over a network, and reassembled at the destination. This technique is widely used
in modern wireless communication systems, such as 4G, 5G, and Wi-Fi.

2. Principles of Packet Switching

● Data Segmentation: Messages are divided into small packets.
● Addressing: Each packet carries source and destination addresses.
● Routing: Packets take independent paths to the destination.
● Reassembly: Packets are reordered and combined at the receiver.
● Error Handling: Lost packets can be retransmitted.

3. Types of Packet Switching

● Datagram Packet Switching: Each packet is treated independently, and the route may vary.
● Virtual Circuit Packet Switching: A pre-determined path is established before packet
transmission.

4. Advantages of Packet Switching in Wireless Communication

 ● Efficient Bandwidth Utilization: Multiple users can share network resources
dynamically.

● Reduced Latency: Supports real-time applications like VoIP and video streaming.

● Scalability: Easily accommodates a large number of users.

● Reliability: Error recovery mechanisms ensure data integrity.

5. Packet Switching in 4G and 5G Networks

● 4G (LTE): Uses IP-based packet switching for voice (VoLTE) and data.
● 5G: Implements advanced packet switching with low latency and high-speed data
transmission.

6. Challenges in Wireless Packet Switching

● Network Congestion: High traffic can lead to delays.
● Security Issues: Susceptible to cyber threats like packet sniffing.
● Packet Loss: Wireless interference can cause data loss.

Conclusion
Packet switching plays a crucial role in modern wireless networks by improving efficiency, scalability, and
performance. Its adoption in technologies like LTE and 5G ensures robust and seamless communication..

Packet switching is a connectionless network switching method. Here, the message is split up into a number
of packet-like pieces and sent from the source to the destination one at a time. It is not necessary to set up a
separate communication link.
In this article, we will look more into Packet Switching in Computer Networks according to the GATE
Syllabus for (Computer Science Engineering) CSE. We will read ahead to find out more about it.
Table of Contents
  What is Packet Switching in a Computer Network?
 What is a Process?
 Techniques Used by Packet Switching
 Pros and Cons of Packet Switching
What is Packet Switching in a Computer Network?
Data can be transferred to a network via packet switching in the form of packets. The data is divided into
small, variable-length units called packets in order to transport files quickly and effectively through
networks while minimising transmission latency. All of these little components (packets), which belong to
the same file, must be put back together at the destination. Payload and additional control information make
up a packet. There is no requirement for resource reservations or pre-setup.
What is a Process?
A header and a payload are the two components of each packet in a packet switching mechanism. The
header of the packet contains the addressing information, which the intermediate routers use to direct it to
its destination. The actual data is carried by the payload.
Based on its header information, a packet is forwarded as soon as it becomes available in a node. A
message’s packets are not all routed along the same path. As a result, the message’s packets arrive at their
destination out of sequence. The destination is in charge of rearranging the packets in order to recover the
original message.
Techniques Used by Packet Switching
When switching packets, the store and the forward mechanism is employed; each hop stores the packet
before forwarding it. Due to the possibility of packets being dropped at any time for any reason, this
strategy is quite helpful. There may be more than one way to get from one place to another. Each packet has
a source address and a destination address that it uses to move through the network independently. To put it
in other words, packets from the same file may not follow the same path. Packets are free to select any
other paths over an existing network if there is congestion on a particular path.
Since circuit-switched networks weren’t very efficient for small messages, packet-switched networks were
created to address these shortcomings.
Pros and Cons of Packet Switching
Pros
 Since packets are dispatched as soon as they are available, delivery delays are minimised.
 Since switching devices don’t have to store the complete message before sending it to the next
node, they don’t need a lot of storage.
  Even if a link fails in some areas of the network, data delivery can still occur. Other pathways
can be used to route packets.
 It permits numerous users to use the same channel at once.
 As numerous packets from various sources can be sent via the same channel, it guarantees
improved bandwidth usage.
Cons
 They are inappropriate for applications like high-quality voice calls that cannot tolerate
communication delays.
 Cost-prohibitive installation of packet switching.
 Complicated protocols are needed to deliver them.
 Packet mistakes, delivery delays, and packet loss can all result from network issues. If not
managed properly, this could result in the loss of important data.

Types of Delays in Packet Switching

 Transmission Delay: Time required by the spent station to transmit data to the link.
 Propagation Delay: Time of data propagation through the link.
 Queueing Delay: Time spent by the packet at the destination’s queue.
 Processing Delay: Processing time for data at the destination.

Types of Packet Switching

1. Connection-oriented Packet Switching (Virtual Circuit)
Before starting the transmission, it establishes a logical path or virtual connection using a signaling protocol,
between sender and receiver and all packets belongs to this flow will follow this predefined route. Virtual
Circuit ID is provided by switches/routers to uniquely identify this virtual connection. Data is divided into
small units and all these small units are appended with help of sequence numbers. Packets arrive in order at
the destination. Overall, three phases take place here- The setup, data transfer and tear-down phases.

2. Connectionless Packet Switching (Datagram)

Unlike Connection-oriented packet switching, In Connectionless Packet Switching each packet contains all
necessary addressing information such as source address, destination address, port numbers, etc. Packets
belonging to one flow may take different routes because routing decisions are made dynamically, so the
packets that arrived at the destination might be out of order. It has no connection setup and teardown phase,
like Virtual Circuits. Packet delivery is not guaranteed in connectionless packet switching, so reliable
delivery must be provided by end systems using additional protocols.
Notes : Packet switching
Packet switching is a method of data transmission where information is broken into smaller packets before
being sent over a network. Each packet travels independently through the network and is reassembled at the
destination. Its ability to handle varying data loads and ensure reliable communication underpins the
functionality of the internet and other digital communication systems.

Advantages of Packet Switching

Packet switching offers numerous benefits that make it a preferred method for data transmission in modern
networks.

• Efficiency: Optimizes the use of network resources by dynamically allocating bandwidth.

• Reliability: Ensures data integrity by reassembling packets at the destination.
• Scalability: Easily handles varying data loads without significant performance degradation.
• Cost-Effective: Reduces the need for dedicated circuits, lowering operational costs.
• Flexibility: Supports multiple types of data and services over the same network infrastructure.

Disadvantages of Packet Switching

While packet switching offers many advantages, it is not without its drawbacks. These limitations can
impact the performance and reliability of network communications.

• Latency: Delays can occur due to packet queuing and routing.

• Packet Loss: Packets may be lost during transmission, requiring retransmission.
• Complexity: Managing and reassembling packets requires sophisticated protocols.

Applications of Packet Switching

Packet switching is integral to various modern technologies, enabling efficient and reliable data
transmission across different platforms.
• Internet: Facilitates data transfer across the web, supporting browsing, streaming, and online
communication.
• Cloud Services: Ensures seamless access to cloud-based applications and storage solutions.
• VoIP: Supports voice communication over the internet, reducing costs and improving flexibility.
• Online Gaming: Enhances real-time interaction and data exchange in multiplayer games.
• IoT: Connects various smart devices, enabling efficient data sharing and automation.

Packet Switching vs. Circuit Switching

Understanding the differences between packet switching and circuit switching is essential for optimizing
network performance.

• Resource Allocation: Packet switching dynamically allocates bandwidth, making it efficient for data-
heavy applications. Circuit switching, on the other hand, dedicates a specific path for the entire session,
ensuring consistent quality but potentially wasting resources.
• Use Cases: Packet switching is ideal for enterprises needing flexibility and scalability, such as in internet
and cloud services. Circuit switching is preferred for applications requiring stable, real-time communication,
like traditional voice calls

REG.NO.21-40

Packet switching

What is packing switching?

Packet switching is a method of sending data over a network by breaking it into smaller
chunks called packets. Each packet contains data and control information, such as the source
and destination addresses.

Benefits of packet switching :

• Allows multiple users to share network resources

• Enables efficient routing and reassembly at the receiving end

• Allocates resources as needed

Drawbacks of packet switching :

• Packet mistakes, delivery delays, and packet loss can occur

• Managing a packet switching network is more complicated than other types of

networks

• Overhead is added to the data being sent

• Packets can arrive out of order, causing a slight delay

Packet switching is a method of transmitting data over a network by breaking it into smaller
packets. Each packet contains data and control information.

How it works

 The data is broken into packets at the origin device.

  Each packet is labeled with the source and destination addresses.

 The packets are sent independently over the network.

 The packets may take different routes to reach the destination.

 The destination device receives the packets and reassembles them to recreate the
original data.

Benefits of packet switching

 It allows multiple users to share the network resources.

 It's more efficient and has less bandwidth network wastage.

 It has improved fault tolerance.

 It's more reliable.

 It permits numerous users to use the same channel at once.

Diagram of Packet Switching

In packet switching the data is divided into small packets which allow faster movement of
data. Each packet contains two parts that is Header and Payload, the header on each packet

conation information. Below is the diagram of how packet switching works.

Types of Delays in Packet Switching

 Transmission Delay: Time required by the spent station to transmit data to the link.

 Propagation Delay: Time of data propagation through the link.

 Queueing Delay: Time spent by the packet at the destination’s queue.

 Processing Delay: Processing time for data at the destination.

Advantages of Packet Switching over Circuit Switching

 More efficient in terms of bandwidth, since the concept of reserving a circuit is not
there.

 Minimal transmission latency.

 More reliable as a destination can detect the missing packet.

 More fault tolerant because packets may follow a different path in case any link is
down, Unlike Circuit Switching.

 Cost-effective and comparatively cheaper to implement.

Disadvantage of Packet Switching over Circuit Switching

 Packet Switching doesn’t give packets in order, whereas Circuit Switching provides
ordered delivery of packets because all the packets follow the same path. 

 Since the packets are unordered, we need to provide sequence numbers for each
packet.

 Complexity is more at each node because of the facility to follow multiple paths.

 Transmission delay is more because of rerouting.

 Packet Switching is beneficial only for small messages, but for bursty data (large
messages) Circuit Switching is better.
 Packet switching

What is packing switching?

Packet switching is a method of sending data over a network by breaking it into

smaller chunks called packets. Each packet contains data and control information,
such as the source and destination addresses.

Benefits of packet switching :

 Allows multiple users to share network resources

 Enables efficient routing and reassembly at the receiving end

 Allocates resources as needed

 Drawbacks of packet switching :

 Packet mistakes, delivery delays, and packet loss can occur

 Managing a packet switching network is more complicated than other types of

networks

 Overhead is added to the data being sent

 Packets can arrive out of order, causing a slight delay

 ATM Using Cellular Mode

 Automated Teller Machines (ATMs) have traditionally relied on wired network

connections for secure transactions. However, with advancements in mobile
technology, ATMs can now operate using cellular networks, offering greater
flexibility and efficiency.

 How It Works

 In a cellular-based ATM system, the machine connects to banking networks via 4G

LTE, 5G, or GSM/CDMA technologies instead of traditional landlines or broadband
connections. A secure SIM card or modem is embedded in the ATM, ensuring
seamless data transmission between the ATM and the bank’s server.

 Advantages of Cellular ATMs

 Mobility & Flexibility – Can be deployed in remote or temporary locations without

needing wired infrastructure.

 Cost-Effective – Reduces the cost of landline installation and maintenance.

 Quick Deployment – Ideal for disaster relief areas, outdoor events, and rural regions.

 Improved Uptime – Cellular networks provide backup in case of wired connection

failure.

 Security Considerations

 To prevent fraud and cyberattacks, cellular ATMs use encryption, VPNs, and multi-
layer security protocols to ensure safe transactions. Banks also implement real-time
monitoring to detect anomalies.

 Future Prospects

 With 5G technology, cellular ATMs will benefit from faster speeds, lower latency,
and enhanced security, making transactions even more reliable and convenient for
users worldwide.

ATM Using Cellular Mode

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) in Cellular Networks refers to the use of ATM

technology for wireless communication, particularly in mobile and broadband cellular

systems. ATM’s ability to handle voice, video, and data efficiently with Quality of
Service

(QoS) made it an attractive choice for early 3G networks and wireless backbone

infrastructure.

Features of ATM in Cellular Networks

1. Seamless Data Transmission: Enables smooth communication between mobile

users and network backbone.

2. Quality of Service (QoS): Ensures low latency, jitter, and high reliability for real-
time

applications like voice calls and video streaming.

3. Efficient Bandwidth Utilization: Uses statistical multiplexing to optimize

bandwidth
allocation.

4. Support for Multiple Data Types: Handles voice, video, and data simultaneously.

5. Virtual Circuit Switching: Uses Permanent Virtual Circuits (PVCs) and Switched

Virtual Circuits (SVCs) to establish reliable connections.

6. Cell-Based Transmission: Fixed-size 53-byte cells help maintain predictable

performance.

7. Interoperability: Can be integrated with 2G, 3G, and early 4G wireless networks.

ATM Using Cellular Mode

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) in Cellular Networks refers to the use of ATM

technology for wireless communication, particularly in mobile and broadband cellular

systems. ATM’s ability to handle voice, video, and data efficiently with Quality of
Service

(QoS) made it an attractive choice for early 3G networks and wireless backbone

infrastructure.

Features of ATM in Cellular Networks

1. Seamless Data Transmission: Enables smooth communication between mobile

users and network backbone.

2. Quality of Service (QoS): Ensures low latency, jitter, and high reliability for real-
time

applications like voice calls and video streaming.

3. Efficient Bandwidth Utilization: Uses statistical multiplexing to optimize

bandwidth

allocation.

4. Support for Multiple Data Types: Handles voice, video, and data simultaneously.

5. Virtual Circuit Switching: Uses Permanent Virtual Circuits (PVCs) and Switched
Virtual Circuits (SVCs) to establish reliable connections.

6. Cell-Based Transmission: Fixed-size 53-byte cells help maintain predictable

performance.

7. Interoperability: Can be integrated with 2G, 3G, and early 4G wireless networks.

Advantages of Using ATM in Cellular Networks

Guaranteed QoS: Provides stable, high-quality service for voice and video calls.

Fast Switching & Low Latency: Reduces delays, making it suitable for real-time

applications.

Efficient Resource Allocation: Dynamically adjusts bandwidth based on traffic

demands.

Scalability: Supports large-scale mobile networks with multiple base stations.

Reliable Connection Management: Virtual circuit setup ensures consistent

performance.

Supports Multimedia Traffic: Can handle multiple services (voice, video, and data)
over

the same network.

Disadvantages of ATM in Cellular Networks

High Cost: ATM requires specialized infrastructure, increasing deployment costs.

Complexity: Managing ATM-based mobile networks is more complicated than IP-

based

solutions.

Overhead from Fixed Cell Size: 53-byte cells can cause inefficiency in handling large

data packets.

Declining Adoption: Newer wireless technologies like IP-based LTE, 5G, and MPLS
have
 replaced ATM in modern networks.

Limited Integration with IP Networks: Cellular networks are increasingly IP-based,

making ATM less relevant.

Use Cases of ATM in Cellular Networks

Early 3G Networks: Used as a backbone for handling multimedia traffic.

Wireless ATM (WATM): Proposed for seamless mobile communication but later
replaced by

IP-based networks.

Broadband Wireless Networks: Used in satellite and military communication before

the

rise of modern IP-based solutions.

Enterprise Mobile Networks: Some businesses use ATM-based mobile systems for
private communication.

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) in Wireless Communication

Introduction

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a high-speed networking technology designed for

voice, video, and data transmission.

It is based on cell-switching and multiplexing, ensuring efficient data transmission with low
latency.
Originally developed for wired networks, ATM plays a role in wireless communication by
supporting QoS (Quality of Service) and seamless integration with broadband services.

Key Features of ATM

1. Cell-based Switching:

Uses fixed-size cells (53 bytes) instead of variable-length packets, reducing delay.

2.Connection-Oriented:

Establishes a virtual circuit before data transfer, ensuring reliability.

3. Supports Multiple Service Types:

Handles voice, video, and data simultaneously.

4. Quality of Service (QoS):

Provides different classes of service (CBR, VBR, ABR, UBR) for real-time and non-real-time
applications.

5. Scalability & Efficiency

Works across LAN, MAN, and WAN, making it suitable for both wired and wireless
networks.

ATM in Wireless Communication

Wireless ATM (WATM) extends ATM functionality to mobile and wireless networks.

Ensures seamless handover, mobility management, and bandwidth allocation in mobile

communication.

Used in 3G and early broadband wireless networks before IP-based solutions took over.

Advantages of ATM in Wireless Networks

Fast and Low Latency: ATM’s fixed cell structure enables faster data transmission.

Reliable & Secure: Ensures consistent service quality through error correction and
connection-oriented data flow.

Flexibility: Supports different types of network traffic efficiently.

Limitations of ATM in Wireless Networks

Complex Implementation: ATM requires dedicated infrastructure, making it costly.

Fixed Cell Size Overhead: Small data packets may waste bandwidth due to ATM’s fixed-size
cells.

Transition to IP Networks: Modern wireless networks use IP-based technologies, reducing the
use of ATM.

Diagram

Conclusion

While ATM was once a leading technology for broadband and wireless communication, it has
been largely replaced by IP-based networks (such as LTE and 5G).

However, ATM’s principles of QoS, connection-oriented switching, and traffic management

still influence modern networking technologies.

ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) cellular is a wireless networking technology that

combines the benefits of ATM and cellular networks. Here's a brief overview:

Key Characteristics
1. Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM): A high-speed networking technology that transmits
data in fixed-size packets (cells).

2. Cellular Network: A wireless network that provides mobile communication services.

How it Works

1. Integration: ATM technology is integrated into cellular networks to provide high-speed

data transmission.

2. Cell Switching: ATM cells are switched between cellular base stations to facilitate
communication between mobile devices.

3. Quality of Service (QoS): ATM's QoS features ensure reliable, high-speed data
transmission over cellular networks.

#Benefits

1. High-Speed Data: ATM cellular enables fast data transmission rates, suitable for
applications like video streaming and online gaming.

2. Low Latency: ATM's QoS features minimize latency, ensuring real-time communication.

3. Reliability: ATM cellular provides a reliable connection, essential for mission-critical

applications.

Applications

1. Mobile Broadband: ATM cellular is used in mobile broadband networks to provide high-
speed internet access.

2. IoT (Internet of Things): ATM cellular can be used in IoT applications that require reliable,
high-speed data transmission.

3. Mission-Critical Communications: ATM cellular is suitable for mission-critical

applications, such as emergency services and public safety networks.
Limitations

1. Complexity: ATM cellular networks can be complex to deploy and manage.

2. Cost: Implementing ATM cellular technology can be expensive.

3. Interoperability: ATM cellular may require additional hardware and software to ensure
interoperability with existing networks.

ATM cellular technology provides high-speed, reliable data transmission over cellular
networks, making it suitable for applications that require low latency and high QoS.

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a telecommunications standard defined by the

American National Standards Institute and International Telecommunication Union
Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T, formerly CCITT) for digital transmission
of multiple types of traffic. ATM was developed to meet the needs of the Broadband
Integrated Services Digital Network as defined in the late 1980s,[1] and designed to integrate
telecommunication networks. It can handle both traditional high-throughput data traffic and
real-time, low-latency content such as telephony (voice) and video.[2][3] ATM provides
functionality that uses features of circuit switching and packet switching networks by using
asynchronous time-division multiplexing.[4][5] ATM was seen in the 1990s as a competitor
to Ethernet and networks carrying IP traffic as, unlike Ethernet, it was faster and designed
with quality-of-service in mind, but it fell out of favor once Ethernet reached speeds of 1
gigabits per second.[6]

In the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model data link layer (layer 2), the
basic transfer units are called frames. In ATM these frames are of a fixed length (53 octets)
called cells. This differs from approaches such as Internet Protocol (IP) (OSI layer 3) or
Ethernet (also layer 2) that use variable-sized packets or frames. ATM uses a connection-
oriented model in which a virtual circuit must be established between two endpoints before
the data exchange begins.[5] These virtual circuits may be either permanent (dedicated
connections that are usually preconfigured by the service provider), or switched (set up on a
per-call basis using signaling and disconnected when the call is terminated).

The ATM network reference model approximately maps to the three lowest layers of the OSI
model: physical layer, data link layer, and network layer.[7] ATM is a core protocol used in
the synchronous optical networking and synchronous digital hierarchy (SONET/SDH)
backbone of the public switched telephone network and in the Integrated Services Digital
Network (ISDN) but has largely been superseded in favor of next-generation networks based
on IP technology. Wireless and mobile ATM never established a significant foothold.

he generic flow control (GFC) field is a 4-bit field that was originally added to support the
connection of ATM networks to shared access networks such as a distributed queue dual bus
(DQDB) ring. The GFC field was designed to give the User-Network Interface (UNI) 4 bits
in which to negotiate multiplexing and flow control among the cells of various ATM
connections. However, the use and exact values of the GFC field have not been standardized,
and the field is always set to 0000.[11]

VPI

Virtual path identifier (8 bits UNI, or 12 bits NNI)

VCI

Virtual channel identifier (16 bits)

PT

Payload type (3 bits)

Bit 3 (msbit): Network management cell. If 0, user data cell and the following apply:

Bit 2: Explicit forward congestion indication (EFCI); 1 = network congestion experienced

Bit 1 (lsbit): ATM user-to-user (AAU) bit. Used by AAL5 to indicate packet boundaries.

CLP

Cell loss priority (1-bit)

HEC

Header error control (8-bit CRC, polynomial = X8 + X2 + X + 1)

ATM uses the PT field to designate various special kinds of cells for operations,
administration and management (OAM) purposes, and to delineate packet boundaries in some
ATM adaptation layers (AAL). If the most significant bit (MSB) of the PT field is 0, this is a
user data cell, and the other two bits are used to indicate network congestion and as a general-
purpose header bit available for ATM adaptation layers. If the MSB is 1, this is a management
cell, and the other two bits indicate the type: network management segment, network
management end-to-end, resource management, and reserved for future use.

Several ATM link protocols use the HEC field to drive a CRC-based framing algorithm,
which allows locating the ATM cells with no overhead beyond what is otherwise needed for
header protection. The 8-bit CRC is used to correct single-bit header errors and detect multi-
bit header errors. When multi-bit header errors are detected, the current and subsequent cells
are dropped until a cell with no header errors is found.

A UNI cell reserves the GFC field for a local flow control and sub-multiplexing system
between users. This was intended to allow several terminals to share a single network
connection in the same way that two ISDN phones can share a single basic rate ISDN
connection. All four GFC bits must be zero by default.

The NNI cell format replicates the UNI format almost exactly, except that the 4-bit GFC field
is re-allocated to the VPI field, extending the VPI to 12 bits. Thus, a single NNI ATM
interconnection is capable of addressing almost 212 VPs of up to almost 216 VCs each.[a]

Service types

[edit]

ATM supports different types of services via AALs. Standardized AALs include AAL1,
AAL2, and AAL5, and the rarely used[12] AAL3 and AAL4. AAL1 is used for constant bit
rate (CBR) services and circuit emulation. Synchronization is also maintained at AAL1.
AAL2 through AAL4 are used for variable bitrate (VBR) services, and AAL5 for data. Which
AAL is in use for a given cell is not encoded in the cell. Instead, it is negotiated by or
configured at the endpoints on a per-virtual-connection basis.

Following the initial design of ATM, networks have become much faster. A 1500 byte
(12000-bit) full-size Ethernet frame takes only 1.2 μs to transmit on a 10 Gbit/s network,
reducing the motivation for small cells to reduce jitter due to contention. The increased link
speeds by themselves do not eliminate jitter due to queuing.

ATM provides a useful ability to carry multiple logical circuits on a single physical or virtual
medium, although other techniques exist, such as Multi-link PPP, Ethernet VLANs, VxLAN,
MPLS, and multi-protocol support over SONET.
“ATM multiplexing” in the context of wireless communication refers to the use of
Asynchronous

Transfer Mode (ATM) technology, which employs a form of time-division multiplexing to

efficiently transmit multiple data streams simultaneously over a single wireless channel by

dividing the data into small, fixed-size “cells,” allowing for flexible bandwidth allocation and

efficient handling of diverse traffic types like voice, video, and data, even in scenarios with
varying

data rates; however, while ATM was a crucial technology in the past, it’s largely been
superseded

by newer protocols in modern wireless networks due to its complexity and limitations in
adapting

to rapidly changing data demands.

Key points about ATM multiplexing:

Fixed-size cells:

• ATM transmits data in small, fixed-size cells (typically 53 bytes), which facilitates efficient

switching and routing compared to variable-length packets used in other protocols.

Asynchronous time-division multiplexing:

• Unlike traditional time-division multiplexing (TDM) with fixed time slots, ATM uses

asynchronous time-division multiplexing, allowing each data stream to be allocated

bandwidth on demand based on its current traffic needs.

Quality of Service (QoS):

• ATM allows for prioritizing different types of traffic by assigning different QoS levels,

which is critical for real-time applications like video conferencing.

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) multiplexing is a technology that combines multiple

data
streams into a single transmission stream. ATM is a communication protocol that uses fixed-
length

cells to transmit data, voice, and video.

How ATM multiplexing works

• ATM uses a constant data stream of fixed-length cells to transmit information.

• ATM cells are 53 bytes long, with 48 bytes of usable data and 5 bytes of cell header.

• ATM cells are transferred using asynchronous time multiplexing.

• ATM switches use VPI/VCI values to identify the next network that a cell needs to transit

to reach its destination.

ATM multiplexing applications

• ATM is used in many networks, including 3G mobile networks.

• ATM is used in the SONET/SDBH backbone of the PSTN.

• ATM is used in G.SHDSL Economy and ADSL.

Time-division multiple access (TDMA) is a channel access method for shared-medium

networks. It allows several users to share the same frequency channel by dividing the signal
into different time slots.[1] The users transmit in rapid succession, one after the other, each
using its own time slot. This allows multiple stations to share the same transmission medium
(e.g. radio frequency channel) while using only a part of its channel capacity. Dynamic
TDMA is a TDMA variant that dynamically reserves a variable number of time slots in each
frame to variable bit-rate data streams, based on the traffic demand of each data stream.
TDMA is used in the digital 2G cellular systems such as Global System for Mobile
Communications (GSM), IS-136, Personal Digital Cellular (PDC) and iDEN, and in
the Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications (DECT) standard for portable phones.
TDMA was first used in satellite communication systems by Western Union in its Westar
3 communications satellite in 1979. It is now used extensively in satellite
communications,[2][3][4][5] combat-net radio systems, and passive optical network (PON)
networks for upstream traffic from premises to the operator.

TDMA is a type of time-division multiplexing (TDM), with the special point that instead of
having one transmitter connected to one receiver, there are multiple transmitters. In the case
of the uplink from a mobile phone to a base station this becomes particularly difficult because
the mobile phone can move around and vary the timing advance required to make its
transmission match the gap in transmission from its peers.

Characteristics

[edit]

 Shares single carrier frequency with multiple users

 Non-continuous transmission makes handoff simpler

 Slots can be assigned on demand in dynamic TDMA

 Less stringent power control than CDMA due to reduced intra cell interference

 Higher synchronization overhead than CDMA

 Advanced equalization may be necessary for high data rates if the channel is
"frequency selective" and creates Intersymbol interference

 Cell breathing (borrowing resources from adjacent cells) is more complicated than in
CDMA

 Frequency/slot allocation complexity

 Pulsating power envelope: interference with other devices

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM):
It is an International Telecommunication Union- Telecommunications Standards Section
(ITU-T) efficient for call relay and it transmits all information including multiple service
types such as data, video, or voice which is conveyed in small fixed-size packets called cells.
Cells are transmitted asynchronously and the network is connection-oriented.

ATM is a technology that has some event in the development of broadband ISDN in the
1970s and 1980s, which can be considered an evolution of packet switching. Each cell is 53
bytes long – 5 bytes header and 48 bytes payload. Making an ATM call requires first sending
a message to set up a connection.

Subsequently, all cells follow the same path to the destination. It can handle both constant
rate traffic and variable rate traffic. Thus it can carry multiple types of traffic with end-to-
end quality of service. ATM is independent of a transmission medium, they may be sent on a
wire or fiber by themselves or they may also be packaged inside the payload of other carrier
systems. ATM networks use “Packet” or “cell” Switching with virtual circuits. Its design
helps in the implementation of high-performance multimedia networking.
ATM Cell Format –
As information is transmitted in ATM in the form of fixed-size units called cells. As known
already each cell is 53 bytes long which consists of a 5 bytes header and 48 bytes payload.

Asynchronous Transfer Mode can be of two format types which are as follows:

1. UNI Header: This is used within private networks of ATMs for communication
between ATM endpoints and ATM switches. It includes the Generic Flow Control
(GFC) field.

2. NNI Header: is used for communication between ATM switches, and it does not
include the Generic Flow Control(GFC) instead it includes a Virtual Path Identifier
 (VPI) which occupies the first 12 bits.

Working of ATM:
ATM standard uses two types of connections. i.e., Virtual path connections (VPCs) which
consist of Virtual channel connections (VCCs) bundled together which is a basic unit carrying
a single stream of cells from user to user. A virtual path can be created end-to-end across an
ATM network, as it does not rout the cells to a particular virtual circuit. In case of major
failure, all cells belonging to a particular virtual path are routed the same way through the
ATM network, thus helping in faster recovery.

Switches connected to subscribers use both VPIs and VCIs to switch the cells which are
Virtual Path and Virtual Connection switches that can have different virtual channel
connections between them, serving the purpose of creating a virtual trunk between the
switches which can be handled as a single entity. Its basic operation is straightforward by
looking up the connection value in the local translation table determining the outgoing port of
the connection and the new VPI/VCI value of connection on that link.

ATM vs DATA Networks (Internet) –

 ATM is a “virtual circuit” based: the path is reserved before transmission. While
Internet Protocol (IP) is connectionless and end-to-end resource reservations are not
possible. RSVP is a new signaling protocol on the internet.

 ATM Cells: Fixed or small size and Tradeoff is between voice or data. While IP
packets are of variable size.

 Addressing: ATM uses 20-byte global NSAP addresses for signaling and 32-bit
locally assigned labels in cells. While IP uses 32-bit global addresses in all packets.

ATM Layers:
1. ATM Adaption Layer (AAL) –
It is meant for isolating higher-layer protocols from details of ATM processes and
prepares for conversion of user data into cells and segments it into 48-byte cell
payloads. AAL protocol excepts transmission from upper-layer services and helps
them in mapping applications, e.g., voice, data to ATM cells.

2. Physical Layer –
It manages the medium-dependent transmission and is divided into two parts physical
medium-dependent sublayer and transmission convergence sublayer. The main
functions are as follows:

o It converts cells into a bitstream.

o It controls the transmission and receipt of bits in the physical medium.

o It can track the ATM cell boundaries.

o Look for the packaging of cells into the appropriate type of frames.

3. ATM Layer –
It handles transmission, switching, congestion control, cell header processing,
sequential delivery, etc., and is responsible for simultaneously sharing the virtual
 circuits over the physical link known as cell multiplexing and passing cells through an
ATM network known as cell relay making use of the VPI and VCI information in the
cell header.

ATM Applications:

1. ATM WANs –
It can be used as a WAN to send cells over long distances, a router serving as an end-
point between ATM network and other networks, which has two stacks of the
protocol.

2. Multimedia virtual private networks and managed services –

It helps in managing ATM, LAN, voice, and video services and is capable of full-
service virtual private networking, which includes integrated access to multimedia.

3. Frame relay backbone –

Frame relay services are used as a networking infrastructure for a range of data
services and enabling frame-relay ATM service to Internetworking services.

4. Residential broadband networks –

ATM is by choice provides the networking infrastructure for the establishment of
residential broadband services in the search of highly scalable solutions.

5. Carrier infrastructure for telephone and private line networks –

To make more effective use of SONET/SDH fiber infrastructures by building the
ATM infrastructure for carrying the telephonic and private-line traffic.
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a high-speed networking technology that uses a
cell-switching and multiplexing technique to transmit data efficiently. It is designed for
real-time applications like voice, video, and data communications.

Multiplexing in ATM

ATM uses statistical multiplexing to efficiently share bandwidth among multiple users.
The key aspects of ATM multiplexing include:

1. Cell-Based Multiplexing

- ATM transfers data in fixed-size 53-byte cells (5-byte header + 48-byte payload).

- Unlike traditional time-division multiplexing (TDM), which assigns fixed time slots,
ATM dynamically allocates bandwidth.

2. Virtual Channel and Virtual Path Multiplexing

- ATM networks use Virtual Channels (VCs) and Virtual Paths (VPs) to organize and
route cells.

- Multiple VCs can be grouped into a VP for easier management and efficient data
transfer.

3. Statistical Multiplexing:

- Unlike synchronous TDM, where slots are reserved even when idle, ATM dynamically
allocates bandwidth based on traffic demand.

- This reduces wasted bandwidth and improves network efficiency.

4. Traffic Classes and QoS Support

- ATM supports multiple service classes (CBR, VBR, UBR, ABR) to ensure **Quality
of Service (QoS) for different applications.
 - It prioritizes real-time traffic (e.g., voice, video) over non-real-time data.

5. Cell Interleaving:

- ATM allows cells from different sources to be interleaved, enabling low-latency

transmission even in congested networks.

Advantages of ATM Multiplexing

- Efficient Bandwidth Utilization: No fixed time slots, making better use of available
bandwidth.

- Low Latency: Faster packet delivery due to small fixed-size cells.

- QoS Support: Ensures reliable transmission for voice, video, and data.

- Scalability: Supports high-speed broadband communication networks.

ATM was widely used in telecommunications and broadband networks, but has been
largely replaced by newer technologies like MPLS (Multiprotocol Label Switching) and
IP-based networking. However, it remains an important concept in network engineering.

ATM Duplexing: Enhancing Reliability and Uptime

Introduction

ATM Duplexing is a fault-tolerant mechanism designed to ensure continuous operation of

Automated Teller Machines (ATMs). Since ATMs handle critical financial transactions, any
system failure can cause significant inconvenience to users and financial losses for banks.
Duplexing introduces redundancy in hardware, network, and power systems to maintain
seamless operation, even during failures.
Key Components of ATM Duplexing

1. Hardware Redundancy

ATMs are equipped with duplicate components such as processors, hard drives, and power
supplies.

If a primary component fails, the backup takes over instantly to prevent downtime.

2. Network Redundancy

Multiple communication links (wired, wireless, or satellite) ensure continuous connectivity to

banking servers.

If one network connection fails, the ATM automatically switches to an alternative connection.

3. Server Redundancy

ATMs connect to multiple bank servers for transaction processing.

If one server becomes unavailable, another handles the transactions without disruption.
4. Power Backup

ATMs have UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply) or backup generators to function during
power failures.

This prevents transaction failures due to sudden power outages.

Advantages of ATM Duplexing

Increased Uptime: Ensures ATMs remain operational even in the event of a failure.

Seamless Transactions: Users experience uninterrupted service, improving customer

satisfaction.

Enhanced Security: Redundancy helps protect against system failures that could be exploited
by fraudsters.

Cost-Effective Maintenance: Prevents revenue loss due to downtime, making it a valuable

investment for banks.
Conclusion

ATM Duplexing is a crucial strategy in banking technology, ensuring high availability and
reliability. By incorporating redundancy in hardware, networking, and power systems, banks
can minimize service disruptions and provide a seamless experience for customers.

ATM Duplexing: Enhancing Reliability and Uptime

Introduction

ATM Duplexing is a fault-tolerant mechanism designed to ensure continuous operation of

Automated Teller Machines (ATMs). Since ATMs handle critical financial transactions, any
system failure can cause significant inconvenience to users and financial losses for banks.
Duplexing introduces redundancy in hardware, network, and power systems to maintain
seamless operation, even during failures.

Key Components of ATM Duplexing

1. Hardware Redundancy
ATMs are equipped with duplicate components such as processors, hard drives, and power
supplies.

If a primary component fails, the backup takes over instantly to prevent downtime.

2. Network Redundancy

Multiple communication links (wired, wireless, or satellite) ensure continuous connectivity to

banking servers.

If one network connection fails, the ATM automatically switches to an alternative connection.

3. Server Redundancy

ATMs connect to multiple bank servers for transaction processing.

If one server becomes unavailable, another handles the transactions without disruption.

4. Power Backup

ATMs have UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply) or backup generators to function during
power failures.

This prevents transaction failures due to sudden power outages.

Advantages of ATM Duplexing

Increased Uptime: Ensures ATMs remain operational even in the event of a failure.

Seamless Transactions: Users experience uninterrupted service, improving customer

satisfaction.

Enhanced Security: Redundancy helps protect against system failures that could be exploited
by fraudsters.

Cost-Effective Maintenance: Prevents revenue loss due to downtime, making it a valuable

investment for banks.

Conclusion

ATM Duplexing is a crucial strategy in banking technology, ensuring high availability and
reliability. By incorporating redundancy in hardware, networking, and power systems, banks
can minimize service disruptions and provide a seamless experience for customers.
Difference Between FDMA, TDMA and CDMA

In communication systems, FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA are three different methods used to
share a

single communication channel among multiple users. Understanding these methods helps us
see how

multiple users can efficiently share communication channels without interference.

FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access) divides the channel into separate frequency
bands for each

user. TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) assigns different time slots to each user on the
same

frequency. CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) uses unique codes to differentiate users
sharing the

same frequency band at the same time. In this article, we are going to discuss the differences
between these

communication channels in detail.

What is FDMA?
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA): FDMA is a type of channelization protocol.
This

bandwidth is divided into various frequency bands. Each station is allocated a band to send
data and that

band is reserved for the particular station for all the time which is as follows.

FDMA

The frequency bands of different stations are separated by small bands of unused frequency
and unused

frequency bands are called as guard bands that prevent the interference of stations. It is like
the access

method in the data link layer in which the data link layer at each station tells its physical layer
to make a

bandpass signal from the data passed to it. The signal is created in the allocated band and
there is no

physical multiplexer at the physical layer.

Advantages of FDMA

FDMA uses simple hardware resources and is easy to set up.

It efficiently handles smaller groups of users.

The system isn’t overly complicated.

All stations can transmit continuously without waiting their turn.

It lowers the amount of data transmitted, which can increase capacity.

It reduces interference between symbols, improving communication quality.

Disadvantages of FDMA

FDMA works only with analog signals.

It lacks flexibility, so existing traffic patterns must change gradually.

Transponders need extensive bandwidth.

It doesn’t support high traffic capacity.

RF filters must meet strict adjacent channel rejection standards, which can increase costs.

The maximum bit rate per channel is small and remains fixed.

What is TDMA?

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) : TDMA is the channelization protocol in which
bandwidth of

channel is divided into various stations on the time basis. There is a time slot given to each
station, the

station can transmit data during that time slot only which is as following.

Each station must aware of its beginning of time slot and the location of the time slot.
TDMA requires

synchronization between different stations. It is type of access method in the data link layer.
At each

station data link layer tells the station to use the allocated time slot.

Advantages of TDMA

As cell sizes decrease, TDMA requires substantial investment in space, support, and base-
station

hardware.

It can transmit data at speeds ranging from 64 kbps to 120 Mbps.

TDMA separates users based on time, ensuring no interference from simultaneous

transmissions.

It supports services like fax, voiceband data, SMS, multimedia applications, and video
conferencing.

TDMA extends battery life by allowing devices to transmit only part of the time during

conversations.

It effectively handles both data transmission and voice communication needs.

Disadvantages of TDMA

If all time slots in the current cell and the next cell are occupied, users allocated specific slots
may not

connect to a call.

Frequency/slot allocation in TDMA can be complex.

High data rates in TDMA require equalization.

Network and spectrum planning in TDMA is complex and time-consuming, needing

expertise and

resources.

TDMA focuses on organization and range planning.

What is CDMA?

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) : In CDMA, all the stations can transmit data
simultaneously. It

allows each station to transmit data over the entire frequency all the time. Multiple
simultaneous

transmissions are separated by unique code sequence. Each user is assigned with a unique
code sequence.

Aantages of CDMA

CDMA has a very high spectral capacity, supporting many users within a wide bandwidth.

It doesn’t require synchronization between users.

CDMA channels are hard to decode, improving cellular communication security.

It provides better secure transmission capabilities.

Dropouts only occur when the user is twice the distance from the base station.

Disadvantages of CDMA

CDMA faces channel pollution when a user’s phone connects to multiple cell sites, but only
one has
strong signal.

CDMA isn’t as mature as

GSM sinnce it’s newer.

CDMA requires time synchronization.

Performance of the CDMA system decreases as the number of users increases.

CDMA equipment tends to be more expensive due to its complexity

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) Duplexing

Overview of ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) Duplexing:

ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) duplexing refers to a fault-tolerant mechanism used in

ATM networks to ensure continuous data transmission by providing redundancy at various
levels, such as switching, network paths, and link connections. This is essential for
maintaining high availability and reliability in telecommunications and banking networks.

Importance of Duplexing in ATM Networks:

• Ensures continuous data transmission even if a failure occurs in a switch, link, or network
component.

• Minimizes packet loss and reduces downtime.

• Provides failover mechanisms for high-reliability applications, such as video conferencing,

and banking transactions.

Types of ATM Duplexing:

a. Link Duplexing:

• ATM networks can have dual physical links between network nodes.

• If the primary link fails, traffic is automatically rerouted to the secondary link.

• Common in high-speed backbone networks to prevent service interruptions.

b. Switch Duplexing:

• ATM switches operate in redundant pairs (primary and backup switches).

• If the primary switch fails, the backup switch takes over without disrupting data flow.

• Used in large-scale enterprise and telecom networks for fault tolerance.

c. Path Duplexing:

• Establishes multiple virtual circuit paths between sender and receiver.

• If one virtual path fails, traffic is redirected through an alternate virtual circuit.

• Ensures reliability in long-distance ATM networks.

d. Node/Network Duplexing:

• ATM networks may have redundant network nodes to prevent failures.

• If a node goes down, traffic is rerouted through an alternate node.

• Enhances fault tolerance in global communication networks.

Advantages of ATM Duplexing:

• Increases network reliability by reducing single points of failure.

• Enhances performance by maintaining seamless data transmission.

• Supports critical applications such as banking, video streaming, and VoIP.

• Reduces downtime and ensures quick recovery from failures.

Applications of ATM Duplexing:

• Banking and Financial Services: Ensures secure and reliable data transfers for transactions.

• Telecommunications: Provides stable connections for voice and video communications.

• Enterprise Networks: Supports high-speed backbone connections with redundancy.

• Data Centers: Enhances network reliability for cloud-based applications.

Reg no 40-45

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) Duplexing

Overview of ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) Duplexing:

ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) duplexing refers to a fault-tolerant mechanism used in

ATM networks to ensure continuous data transmission by providing redundancy at various
levels, such as switching, network paths, and link connections. This is essential for
maintaining high availability and reliability in telecommunications and banking networks.

Importance of Duplexing in ATM Networks:

• Ensures continuous data transmission even if a failure occurs in a switch, link, or network
component.

• Minimizes packet loss and reduces downtime.

• Provides failover mechanisms for high-reliability applications, such as video conferencing,

and banking transactions.

Types of ATM Duplexing:

a. Link Duplexing:

• ATM networks can have dual physical links between network nodes.

• If the primary link fails, traffic is automatically rerouted to the secondary link.

• Common in high-speed backbone networks to prevent service interruptions.

b. Switch Duplexing:

• ATM switches operate in redundant pairs (primary and backup switches).

• If the primary switch fails, the backup switch takes over without disrupting data flow.

• Used in large-scale enterprise and telecom networks for fault tolerance.

c. Path Duplexing:

• Establishes multiple virtual circuit paths between sender and receiver.

• If one virtual path fails, traffic is redirected through an alternate virtual circuit.

• Ensures reliability in long-distance ATM networks.

d. Node/Network Duplexing:

• ATM networks may have redundant network nodes to prevent failures.

• If a node goes down, traffic is rerouted through an alternate node.

• Enhances fault tolerance in global communication networks.

Advantages of ATM Duplexing:

• Increases network reliability by reducing single points of failure.

• Enhances performance by maintaining seamless data transmission.

• Supports critical applications such as banking, video streaming, and VoIP.

• Reduces downtime and ensures quick recovery from failures.

Applications of ATM Duplexing:

• Banking and Financial Services: Ensures secure and reliable data transfers for transactions.
• Telecommunications: Provides stable connections for voice and video communications.

• Enterprise Networks: Supports high-speed backbone connections with redundancy.

• Data Centers: Enhances network reliability for cloud-based applications.

Voice Coding

Voice coding, also known as speech coding, involves compressing speech signals for efficient

transmission and storage while maintaining intelligibility and quality. Recent advancements
in

this field have been significantly influenced by deep learning techniques.

Deep Learning in Speech Coding

Deep learning models, particularly neural networks, have been employed to enhance speech

compression. Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs) are favored due to their ability to handle

nonlinearity and nonstationarity in speech signals. However, challenges persist in optimizing

adaptive algorithms to balance speech quality and bit rate, especially under adverse
conditions.

Voice Coding for Accessibility

Voice coding technologies have also been adapted to assist developers with physical

impairments. Research indicates that these developers benefit from customizable, multimodal

coding approaches that incorporate distinct voice commands, command chaining, intuitive

navigation, and the ability to define custom commands. Such features enhance coding
efficiency

and inclusivity.

Innovations in Voice Coding Tools

Tools like Idiolect exemplify innovative approaches in voice coding. Idiolect is an open-
source

Integrated Development Environment (IDE) plugin that allows users to define custom voice
commands dynamically, facilitating a more personalized and efficient coding experience.
This

reconfigurable system empowers users to create and modify commands without restarting the

application, highlighting the trend towards more adaptable voice coding solutions.

In summary, the integration of deep learning into voice coding has led to more efficient and

accessible speech compression and coding solutions. Ongoing research continues to address

challenges related to optimizing these technologies for diverse applications and user needs.

Reg no 46 – 50

Multiple access techniques allow multiple users to share the same frequency spectrum

efficiently without interference. In wireless communication, these techniques help

optimize bandwidth usage and minimize interference. The main types are:

1. Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

Each user is assigned a specific frequency band.

Users transmit simultaneously but on different frequencies.

Example: Traditional analog cellular systems.

Pros: Simple, low latency.

Cons: Fixed bandwidth allocation, inefficient for bursty traffic.

2. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

Time is divided into slots, and each user transmits in their assigned time slot.

Users share the same frequency but transmit at different times.

Example: GSM networks.

Pros: Efficient for voice communication, no interference between users.

Cons: Requires precise synchronization, limited flexibility.

3. Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

All users share the same frequency and time but use unique codes to distinguish signals.
Uses spread-spectrum technology to minimize interference.

Example: 3G networks.

Pros: High capacity, resistant to interference and eavesdropping.

Cons: Complex receiver design, power control issues.

4. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA)

Divides the frequency band into smaller sub-carriers.

Users are assigned different sub-carriers simultaneously.

Example: LTE, Wi-Fi (802.11ax).

Pros: High spectral efficiency, robust against interference.

Cons: Complex implementation, sensitive to frequency offsets.

5. Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)

Users are separated spatially using advanced antenna techniques (e.g., beamforming).

Allows frequency and time reuse in different locations.

Example: MIMO systems in 4G/5G.

Pros: Increased capacity, efficient spectrum reuse.

Cons: Requires advanced hardware and complex signal processing.

Multiple Access Techniques

Sometimes a satellite’s service is present at a particular location on the earth station and
sometimes it is not present. That means, a satellite may have different service stations of its
own located at different places on the earth. They send carrier signal for the satellite.
In this situation, we do multiple access to enable satellite to take or give signals from
different stations at time without any interference between them. Following are the three
types of multiple access techniques.

• FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)

• TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)

• CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)

Now, let us discuss each technique one by one.

FDMA

In this type of multiple access, we assign each signal a different type of frequency band
(range). So, any two signals should not have same type of frequency range. Hence, there
won’t be any interference between them, even if we send those signals in one channel.

One perfect example of this type of access is our radio channels. We can see that each station
has been given a different frequency band in order to operate.

Let’s take three stations A, B and C. We want to access them through FDMA technique. So
we assigned them different frequency bands.

As shown in the figure, satellite station A has been kept under the frequency range of 0 to 20
HZ. Similarly, stations B and C have been assigned the frequency range of 30-60 Hz and 70-
90 Hz respectively. There is no interference between them.

The main disadvantage of this type of system is that it is very burst. This type of multiple
access is not recommended for the channels, which are of dynamic and uneven. Because, it
will make their data as inflexible and inefficient.

TDMA

As the name suggests, TDMA is a time based access. Here, we give certain time frame to
each channel. Within that time frame, the channel can access the entire spectrum bandwidth

Each station got a fixed length or slot. The slots, which are unused will remain in idle stage.
Suppose, we want to send five packets of data to a particular channel in TDMA technique. So,
we should assign them certain time slots or time frame within which it can access the entire
bandwidth.

In above figure, packets 1, 3 and 4 are active, which transmits data. Whereas, packets 2 and 5
are idle because of their non-participation. This format gets repeated every time we assign
bandwidth to that particular channel.

Although, we have assigned certain time slots to a particular channel but it can also be
changed depending upon the load bearing capacity. That means, if a channel is transmitting
heavier loads, then it can be assigned a bigger time slot than the channel which is transmitting
lighter loads. This is the biggest advantage of TDMA over FDMA. Another advantage of
TDMA is that the power consumption will be very low.

Note − In some applications, we use the combination of both TDMA and FDMA techniques.
In this case, each channel will be operated in a particular frequency band for a particular time
frame. In this case, the frequency selection is more robust and it has greater capacity over
time compression.

CDMA

In CDMA technique, a unique code has been assigned to each channel to distinguish from
each other. A perfect example of this type of multiple access is our cellular system. We can
see that no two persons’ mobile number match with each other although they are same X or Y
mobile service providing company’s customers using the same bandwidth.

In CDMA process, we do the decoding of inner product of the encoded signal and chipping
sequence. Therefore, mathematically it can be written as

Encodedsignal=Orginaldata×chippingsequenceEncodedsignal=Orginaldata×chippingsequenc
e

The basic advantage of this type of multiple access is that it allows all users to coexist and
use the entire bandwidth at the same time. Since each user has different code, there won’t be
any interference.

In this technique, a number of stations can have number of channels unlike FDMA and
TDMA. The best part of this technique is that each station can use the entire spectrum at all
time.
Reg no 51-55

FDMA, TDMA, and SDMA

Introduction

Modern communication systems require efficient methods to allocate bandwidth and manage

multiple users within a network. Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA), Time
Division

Multiple Access (TDMA), and Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA) are three primary

techniques used to optimize spectrum utilization. Each method has unique characteristics,

advantages, and applications in telecommunications.

1. Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

Definition:

FDMA is a channel access method that assigns distinct frequency bands to multiple users.
Each

user is allocated a separate frequency channel to transmit data simultaneously.

Working Principle:

• The total available bandwidth is divided into multiple frequency bands.

• Each user is assigned a unique frequency band for communication.

• A guard band is maintained between adjacent channels to prevent interference.

• Since each user has a dedicated frequency, communication occurs in parallel.

Advantages:

• No time synchronization is required.

• Continuous transmission ensures lower latency.

• Simple implementation in analog systems.

Disadvantages:

• Inefficient use of spectrum due to guard bands.

• Limited flexibility for dynamic bandwidth allocation.

• Prone to interference from adjacent channels.

Applications:

• Analog and digital radio communication.

• Satellite communication systems.

• Early-generation cellular networks (1G).

2. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

Definition:

TDMA is a channel access method that assigns different time slots to multiple users on the
same

frequency channel. Each user transmits data in its designated time slot.

Working Principle:

• The entire frequency bandwidth is shared among users in different time slots.

• Users transmit in rapid succession within their allocated slots.

• A time synchronization mechanism ensures smooth transitions between users.

Advantages:
• More efficient spectrum usage compared to FDMA.

• Supports more users in the same bandwidth.

• Less interference due to time-separated signals.

Disadvantages:

• Requires precise time synchronization.

• Delays may occur if traffic increases.

• Increased complexity in implementation.

Applications:

• 2G GSM mobile networks.

• Digital cordless phones.

• Military communication systems.

3. Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)

Definition:
SDMA is a technique that enables multiple users to access the same frequency band by using

spatial separation. It utilizes directional antennas or beamforming to allocate different spatial

locations to users.

Working Principle:

• Multiple antennas or base stations create separate communication zones.

• Each user is assigned a unique spatial path to minimize interference.

• Advanced signal processing ensures efficient signal separation.

Advantages:

• Maximizes spectrum reuse.

• Reduces interference between users.

• Enhances overall system capacity.

Disadvantages:

• Requires complex antenna systems.

• High infrastructure cost for implementation.

• Performance depends on accurate positioning of users.

Applications:

• 4G and 5G cellular networks.

• Satellite and radar systems.

• Wireless LANs with MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output) technology.

FDMA

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) Techniques:

In Frequency-Division Multiple Access the channel bandwidth is subdivided into a variety of

sub-channels. FDMA is used for voice and data transmission. During this method the general
channel bandwidth is shared by multiple users, therefore a variety of users can transmit their
data simultaneously. No code words and synchronization are required in FDMA. Power
efficiency is reduced using FDMA, it’s an old and proven system used for analog signals. In
this article, we will discuss Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) Techniques.

What is FDMA?

FDMA is a type of channelization protocol. This bandwidth is divided into various frequency
bands. Each station is allocated a band to send data and that band is reserved for the particular
station for all the time which is as follows:

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) Techniques

Multi-channel-per-carrier (MCPC) transmission

Single-channel per carrier (SCPC) transmission

Multi-Channel-Per-Carrier Transmission

Analog multiplexing is used at earth station in the early stages of communication, this helps
in combining large numbers of telephone channels into a single baseband signal and thus
modulating into a single RF carrier.

Using frequency division multiplexing (FDM) telephone signals can be combined in a group
of channels, this is done by shifting the baseband frequency to a higher frequency.
Single-Channel-Per Carrier Transmission

When a single signal on a carrier is been send via the earth station, this FDMA access
technique is called as “Single-channel-per carrier (SCPC) transmission”.

Hence if a system in which large number of small earth station are used, for example mobile
telephones, which access via a single transponder using FDMA is called a Single-channel-per
carrier Frequency division multiple access scheme (SCPC-FDMA).

Advantages of FDMA

● FDMA uses simple hardware resources and is easy to set up.

● It efficiently handles smaller groups of users.

● The system isn’t overly complicated.

● All stations can transmit continuously without waiting their turn.

● It lowers the amount of data transmitted, which can increase capacity.

● It reduces interference between symbols, improving communication quality.

Disadvantages of FDMA

● FDMA works only with analog signals.

● It lacks flexibility, so existing traffic patterns must change gradually.

● Transponders need extensive Bandwidth.

● It doesn’t support high traffic capacity.

● RF filters must meet strict adjacent channel rejection standards, which can increase
costs.

● The maximum bit rate per channel is small and remains fixed.
TDMA

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is a digital cellular telephone communication

technology. It facilitates many users to share the same frequency without interference. Its
technology divides a signal into different timeslots, and increases the data carrying capacity.

TDMA Overview

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is a complex technology, because it requires an

accurate synchronization between the transmitter and the receiver. TDMA is used in digital
mobile radio systems. The individual mobile stations cyclically assign a frequency for the
exclusive use of a time interval.

In most of the cases, the entire system bandwidth for an interval of time is not assigned to a
station. However, the frequency of the system is divided into sub-bands, and TDMA is used
for the multiple access in each sub-band. Sub-bands are known as carrier frequencies. The
mobile system that uses this technique is referred as the multi-carrier systems.

In the following example, the frequency band has been shared by three users. Each user is
assigned definite timeslots to send and receive data. In this example, user ‘B’ sends after user
‘A,’ and user ‘C’ sends thereafter. In this way, the peak power becomes a problem and larger
by the burst communication.
Advantages of TDMA

Here is a list of few notable advantages of TDMA –

● Permits flexible rates (i.e. several slots can be assigned to a user, for example, each
time interval translates 32Kbps, a user is assigned two 64 Kbps slots per frame).

● Can withstand gusty or variable bit rate traffic. Number of slots allocated to a user can
be changed frame by frame (for example, two slots in the frame 1, three slots in the
frame 2, one slot in the frame 3, frame 0 of the notches 4, etc.).

● No guard band required for the wideband system.

● No narrowband filter required for the wideband system.

Disadvantages of TDMA

The disadvantages of TDMA are as follow –

● High data rates of broadband systems require complex equalization.

 ● Due to the burst mode, a large number of additional bits are required for
synchronization and supervision.

● Call time is needed in each slot to accommodate time to inaccuracies (due to clock
instability).

● Electronics operating at high bit rates increase energy consumption.

● Complex signal processing is required to synchronize within short slots.

SDMA
Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)

Space division multiple access or spatial division multiple access is a technique which is
MIMO (multiple-input multiple-output) architecture and used mostly in wireless and satellite
communication. It has the following features.

● All users can communicate at the same time using the same channel.

● SDMA is completely free from interference.

● A single satellite can communicate with more satellites receivers of the same
frequency.

● The directional spot-beam antennas are used and hence the base station in SDMA, can
track a moving user.

● Controls the radiated energy for each user in space.

● Advantages of SDMA :

● SDMA is a purely optical path

● SDMA is frequency reuse

● Mobile station battery consumption is low

● Increased spectral efficiency

 ● SDMA is transparent to the system if it is purely optical

● Use any bandwidth or data rate achievable in fiber

● SDMA is usually combined with other multiplexing techniques to better utilize the
individual physical channel

Disadvantages of SDMA :

● Some of the disadvantages of SDMA is the fact that the number of switches

● SDMA is very expensive and complected to construct and design

● There are also high insertion losses since each input must have the capability to be
split to any output.

● The reverse link may be a problem like an interference problem

Reg no : 56-60

Difference Between FDMA, TDMA and CDMA

In communication systems, FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA are three different methods used to
share a
single communication channel among multiple users. Understanding these methods helps us
see how

multiple users can efficiently share communication channels without interference.

FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access) divides the channel into separate frequency
bands for each

user. TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) assigns different time slots to each user on the
same

frequency. CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) uses unique codes to differentiate users
sharing the

same frequency band at the same time. In this article, we are going to discuss the differences
between these

communication channels in detail.

What is FDMA?

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA): FDMA is a type of channelization protocol.

This

bandwidth is divided into various frequency bands. Each station is allocated a band to send
data and that

band is reserved for the particular station for all the time which is as follows.

FDMA

The frequency bands of different stations are separated by small bands of unused frequency
and unused

frequency bands are called as guard bands that prevent the interference of stations. It is like
the access

method in the data link layer in which the data link layer at each station tells its physical layer
to make a

bandpass signal from the data passed to it. The signal is created in the allocated band and
there is no
physical multiplexer at the physical layer.

Advantages of FDMA

FDMA uses simple hardware resources and is easy to set up.

It efficiently handles smaller groups of users.

The system isn’t overly complicated.

All stations can transmit continuously without waiting their turn.

It lowers the amount of data transmitted, which can increase capacity.

It reduces interference between symbols, improving communication quality.

Disadvantages of FDMA

FDMA works only with analog signals.

It lacks flexibility, so existing traffic patterns must change gradually.

Transponders need extensive bandwidth.

It doesn’t support high traffic capacity.

RF filters must meet strict adjacent channel rejection standards, which can increase costs.

The maximum bit rate per channel is small and remains fixed.

What is TDMA?

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) : TDMA is the channelization protocol in which
bandwidth of

channel is divided into various stations on the time basis. There is a time slot given to each
station, the

station can transmit data during that time slot only which is as following.

Each station must aware of its beginning of time slot and the location of the time slot. TDMA
requires

synchronization between different stations. It is type of access method in the data link layer.
At each
station data link layer tells the station to use the allocated time slot.

Advantages of TDMA

As cell sizes decrease, TDMA requires substantial investment in space, support, and base-
station

hardware.

It can transmit data at speeds ranging from 64 kbps to 120 Mbps.

TDMA separates users based on time, ensuring no interference from simultaneous

transmissions.

It supports services like fax, voiceband data, SMS, multimedia applications, and video
conferencing.

TDMA extends battery life by allowing devices to transmit only part of the time during
conversations.

It effectively handles both data transmission and voice communication needs.

Disadvantages of TDMA

If all time slots in the current cell and the next cell are occupied, users allocated specific slots
may not

connect to a call.

Frequency/slot allocation in TDMA can be complex.

High data rates in TDMA require equalization.

Network and spectrum planning in TDMA is complex and time-consuming, needing expertise
and

resources.

TDMA focuses on organization and range planning.

What is CDMA?

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) : In CDMA, all the stations can transmit data
simultaneously. It
allows each station to transmit data over the entire frequency all the time. Multiple
simultaneous

transmissions are separated by unique code sequence. Each user is assigned with a unique
code sequence.

Aantages of CDMA

CDMA has a very high spectral capacity, supporting many users within a wide bandwidth.

It doesn’t require synchronization between users.

CDMA channels are hard to decode, improving cellular communication security.

It provides better secure transmission capabilities.

Dropouts only occur when the user is twice the distance from the base station.

Disadvantages of CDMA

CDMA faces channel pollution when a user’s phone connects to multiple cell sites, but only
one has strong

signal.
CDMA isn’t as mature as

GSM sinnce it’s newer.

CDMA requires time synchronization.

Performance of the CDMA system decreases as the number of users increases.

CDMA equipment tends to be more expensive due to its complexity.

Spectral Efficiency.

Definition:

Spectral efficiency (SE) is a measure of how efficiently a communication system

utilizes bandwidth to transmit data. It is expressed in bits per second per Hertz

(bps/Hz) and indicates how much data can be transmitted over a given bandwidth in a

communication channel.
Mathematically, it is given by:

Spectral Efficiency

Data Rate (bps)

Bandwidth (Hz)

Spectral Efficiency=

Bandwidth (Hz)

Data Rate (bps)

Advantages of Spectral Efficiency

Higher Data Transmission: Enables more data to be transmitted over limited

bandwidth.

Better Utilization of Spectrum: Optimizes the use of available frequency resources,

which is critical in wireless communication.

Reduced Network Congestion: Efficient spectrum usage helps in managing network

traffic and reducing interference.

Improved Quality of Service (QoS): Enhances communication quality by maximizing

throughput within a given bandwidth.

Supports Advanced Technologies: Essential for 4G, 5G, and future wireless

communication systems to provide high-speed connectivity.

Disadvantages of Spectral Efficiency

Complex System Design: Requires advanced modulation techniques (e.g., QAM,

OFDM) and signal processing, increasing system complexity.

Higher Power Consumption: Increasing spectral efficiency often demands more

power, which can reduce battery life in mobile devices.

Susceptibility to Noise and Interference: High spectral efficiency can make signals

more vulnerable to noise, affecting reliability.

Expensive Implementation: Deploying high-efficiency communication systems

requires costly infrastructure and research.

Trade-offs with Coverage: Improving spectral efficiency may require smaller cell

sizes, leading to increased deployment costs.

CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)

Definition:

CDMA is a multiple access technique used in wireless communication where multiple

users share the same frequency band by using unique spreading codes. Each user's

data is multiplied by a unique pseudo-random code, allowing simultaneous

transmission without interference. CDMA is widely used in 3G networks (e.g.,

CDMA2000, WCDMA).

Advantages of CDMA

Efficient Spectrum Utilization: Allows multiple users to share the same bandwidth

simultaneously, increasing capacity.

Better Security: The unique spreading codes make it difficult to intercept or eavesdrop

on the communication.

Resistance to Interference and Jamming: The spread-spectrum technique helps in

reducing the impact of noise and interference.

Soft Handoff Capability: Unlike hard handoffs in GSM, CDMA allows seamless

transition between base stations, reducing call drops.

Improved Voice and Data Quality: Provides better signal quality and low latency,

enhancing overall performance.

Disadvantages of CDMA

Complex System Design: Requires sophisticated signal processing and power control

mechanisms.

Near-Far Problem: If a nearby user transmits at high power, it can interfere with

signals from distant users unless proper power control is implemented.

Higher Power Consumption: Mobile devices need to continuously adjust their

transmission power, leading to increased battery drain.

Limited International Adoption: While CDMA was popular in some regions, GSM

(which uses TDMA) became the dominant global standard.

Code Management Complexity: Assigning and managing unique codes for each user

increases system complexity

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) in Modern Wireless Communications

1. Introduction to CDMA

CDMA is a channel access method used in wireless communication systems that allows

multiple users to share a single channel simultaneously by assigning unique codes to each

user. Unlike traditional methods like TDMA or FDMA, CDMA users occupy the same time
and

frequency space but are separated by unique spreading codes.

2. Key Principles

2.1 Spreading Codes- Each user is assigned a unique spreading code (chip sequence)- Codes
are orthogonal or near-orthogonal to minimize interference- Spreading codes are typically
pseudo-random noise (PN) sequences- Common code families include:- Walsh-Hadamard
codes- Gold codes- Kasami sequences

2.2 Spread Spectrum Techniques- Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)- Data bits are
multiplied by spreading code- Results in wider bandwidth signal- Provides interference
resistance- Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)- Carrier frequency changes
according to spreading code- Less common in modern CDMA systems

3. CDMA System Operation

3.1 Transmitter Operation

1. User data is encoded with error correction

2. Data is spread using unique PN sequence

3. Spread signal is modulated onto carrier

4. Multiple users' signals are combined in air

3.2 Receiver Operation

1. Received signal contains multiple users

2. Correlation with specific PN sequence

3. Original data is extracted

4. Error correction applied

4. Key Advantages- Increased system capacity- Better security through spreading- Soft
handoff capability- Resistance to:- Narrowband interference

- Multipath fading

- Jamming
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) – Notes

1. Introduction to CDMA

CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) is a multiple access technique used in wireless
communication where multiple users share the same frequency band by using unique
spreading codes. Unlike TDMA and FDMA, CDMA allows multiple users to transmit
simultaneously over the same frequency spectrum.
2. Key Concepts of CDMA

Spread Spectrum Technology: Signals are spread over a wider bandwidth using unique codes.

Unique Spreading Codes: Each user has a distinct pseudorandom code that allows the
receiver to distinguish between different users.

Asynchronous Transmission: Users can transmit data at any time without requiring time slots.

Soft Handoff: Mobile devices can switch between base stations without interruption.

Power Control: Adjusts transmission power to minimize interference and maintain signal
quality.

3. CDMA System Architecture

Mobile Station (MS): The user's mobile device.

Base Station (BS): Controls communication with mobile devices in a cell.

Base Station Controller (BSC): Manages multiple base stations.

Mobile Switching Center (MSC): Connects calls to the public telephone network.
Authentication Center (AuC): Ensures secure communication.

4. CDMA Working Principle

1. Each user is assigned a unique spreading code.

2. The data signal is multiplied by this code, spreading it over a wide bandwidth.

3. The receiver uses the same code to extract the intended signal while ignoring others.

4. Since codes are orthogonal, multiple signals can coexist without significant interference.

5. Advantages of CDMA

Efficient Spectrum Utilization: Allows more users in the same bandwidth compared to
FDMA/TDMA.

Better Security: Difficult to intercept due to spread spectrum techniques.

Resistance to Interference: Can reject narrowband interference effectively.

Soft Handoff: Reduces call drops during handovers.

Better Voice and Data Quality: Improved signal quality and noise reduction.

6. Disadvantages of CDMA

Near-Far Problem: Users closer to the base station may overpower distant users, requiring
power control.

Complex System Design: Requires sophisticated algorithms for code synchronization.

High Computational Requirements: More processing power needed for signal decoding.

Limited by Interference: If too many users share the network, performance degrades.

7. Applications of CDMA

3G Networks (CDMA2000, WCDMA)

Military Communication
Satellite Communication

Wireless Local Loop (WLL)

9. CDMA Variants

CDMA2000: A 3G technology used in North America.

WCDMA (Wideband CDMA): Used in 3G UMTS networks.

UWB (Ultra-Wideband): Used in short-range communication.

10. Future of CDMA

CDMA was widely used in 2G and 3G but is now being replaced by 4G LTE and 5G
technologies, which use OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing) instead of
CDMA.

……………………

Spectral Efficiency in Wireless Communication

1. What is Spectral Efficiency?

Spectral efficiency measures how efficiently a communication system transmits data over a
given bandwidth. It is defined as:

eta = C/B

Where:

η (eta) = Spectral efficiency (bits per second per Hertz, bps/Hz)

C = Data rate (bps)

B = Bandwidth (Hz)

A higher spectral efficiency means more data can be transmitted in the same bandwidth,
improving network capacity.

---

2. Factors Affecting Spectral Efficiency

Modulation Schemes: Higher-order modulations (e.g., QPSK, 16-QAM, 64-QAM) improve

efficiency.
Multiple Access Techniques: FDMA, TDMA, CDMA, and OFDMA impact efficiency
differently.

Error Correction Codes: Reduces retransmissions but adds redundancy.

Antenna Technology: MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output) enhances spectral efficiency.

Interference and Noise: Higher interference lowers efficiency.

---

3. Spectral Efficiency in Different Wireless Technologies

4. How to Improve Spectral Efficiency?

1. Use Higher-Order Modulation – Increases data rates within the same bandwidth.

2. Implement MIMO (Multiple Antennas) – Boosts capacity without additional bandwidth.

3. Reduce Interference – Smart antennas and adaptive power control minimize interference.
4. Use OFDMA – Splits frequency into subcarriers, improving bandwidth usage.

5. Apply Efficient Coding Techniques – LDPC and Turbo Codes reduce errors and
retransmissions.

5. Spectral Efficiency in 4G & 5G

4G LTE uses OFDMA + MIMO, achieving 2.5 – 5.0 bps/Hz.

5G uses Massive MIMO & mmWave, reaching 10+ bps/Hz, making it the most efficient so
far.