21ECO103T

MODERN WIRELESS COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

Unit-1 - notes
 Unit-1 - Transmission Fundamentals

Cellphone Generations- 1G and 2G-2.5G-3G-4G Transmission Introduction- 4G

Transmission Fundamentals- Time domain concepts- Frequency domain concepts-
Radio Media- Analog Vs Digital- Channel capacity- Transmission media- Signaling
Schemes

Cellphone Generations- 1G and 2G-2.5G-3G-4G Transmission

1G – First-generation mobile communication system

The first generation of mobile networks was deployed in Japan by Nippon Telephone
and Telegraph Company (NTT) in Tokyo in 1979. At the beginning of the 1980s, it
gained popularity in the US, Finland, the UK, and Europe. This system used analog
signals, and it had many disadvantages due to technology limitations.

Most popular 1G system during the 1980s

 Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS)

 Nordic Mobile Phone System (NMTS)
 Total Access Communication System (TACS)
 European Total Access Communication System (ETACS)

Key features (technology) of the 1G system

 Frequency 800 MHz and 900 MHz

 Bandwidth: 10 MHz (666 duplex channels with a bandwidth of 30 KHz)
 Technology: Analogue switching
 Modulation: Frequency Modulation (FM)
 Mode of service: voice only
 Access technique: Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

Disadvantages of 1G system

 Poor voice quality due to interference

 Poor battery life
 Large-sized mobile phones (not convenient to carry)
 Less security (calls could be decoded using an FM demodulator)
 A limited number of users and cell coverage
 Roaming was not possible between similar systems

2G – Second generation communication system GSM

The second generation of mobile communication systems introduced a new digital

technology for wireless transmission, also known as Global System for Mobile
Communication (GSM). GSM technology became the base standard for further
development in wireless standards later. This standard was capable of supporting up to
14.4 to 64kbps (maximum) data rate, which is sufficient for SMS and email services.
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) systems developed by Qualcomm were also
introduced and implemented in the mid-1990s. CDMA has more features than GSM
regarding spectral efficiency, number of users, and data rate.

Key features of the 2G system

 The digital system (switching)

 SMS services are possible
 Roaming is possible
 Enhanced security
 Encrypted voice transmission
 First internet at a lower data rate
 Disadvantages of the 2G system
 Low data rate
 Limited mobility
 Less features on mobile devices
 Limited number of users and hardware capability

2.5G and 2.75G system

In order to support higher data rates, General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) was
introduced and successfully deployed. GPRS was capable of data rates up to 171kbps
(maximum).
EDGE – Enhanced Data GSM Evolution was also developed to improve the data rate
for GSM networks. EDGE was capable of supporting up to 473.6kbps (maximum).
Another popular technology CDMA2000 was also introduced to support higher data
rates for CDMA networks. This technology has the ability to provide up to 384 kbps
data rate (maximum).

3G – Third-generation communication system

Third-generation mobile communication started with the introduction of UMTS –

Universal Mobile Terrestrial / Telecommunication Systems. UMTS has a data rate of
384kbps, and it supports video calling for the first time on mobile devices.
After the introduction of the 3G mobile communication system, smartphones became
popular across the globe. Specific applications were developed for smartphones that
handle multimedia chat, email, video calling, games, social media, and healthcare.

Key features of the 3G system

 Higher data rate

 Video calling
 Enhanced security, more users, and coverage
 Mobile app support
 Multimedia message support
 Location tracking and maps
 Better web browsing
 TV streaming
 High-quality 3D games

3.5G to 3.75 Systems

In order to enhance the data rate in existing 3G networks, two technology improvements
are introduced to the network. HSDPA – High-Speed Downlink Packet Access and
HSUPA – High-Speed Uplink Packet Access, developed and deployed to the 3G
networks. 3.5G network can support up to 2mbps data rate.
3.75 system is an improved version of the 3G network with HSPA+ High-Speed Packet
Access Plus. Later this system will evolve into a more powerful 3.9G system known
as LTE (Long Term Evolution).
Disadvantages of 3G systems

 Expensive spectrum licenses

 Costly infrastructure, equipment, and implementation
 Higher bandwidth requirements to support a higher data rate
 Costly mobile devices
 Compatibility with older generation 2G systems and frequency bands

4G – Fourth-generation communication system

4G systems are enhanced version of 3G networks developed by IEEE, offers higher

data rate, and are capable of handling more advanced multimedia services. LTE and
LTE advanced wireless technology used in 4th generation systems. Furthermore, it has
compatibility with the previous versions; thus, easier deployment and upgrade of LTE
and LTE advanced networks are possible.

Simultaneous transmission of voice and data is possible with an LTE system, which
significantly improves the data rate. All services, including voice services, can be
transmitted over IP packets. Complex modulation schemes and carrier aggregation are
used to multiply uplink/downlink capacity.

Wireless transmission technologies like WiMax are introduced in 4G systems to

enhance data rate and network performance.

Key features of the 4G system

 Much higher data rate up to 1Gbps

 Enhanced security and mobility
 Reduced latency for mission-critical applications
 High-definition video streaming and gaming
 Voice over LTE network VoLTE (use IP packets for voice)

Disadvantages of the 4G system

 Expensive hardware and infrastructure

 Costly spectrum (in most countries, frequency bands are too expensive)
 High-end mobile devices compatible with 4G technology are required, which is
costly
 Wide deployment and upgrade are time-consuming

5G – Fifth-generation communication system

5G network is using advanced technologies to deliver ultra-fast internet and multimedia

experience for customers. Existing LTE advanced networks will transform into
supercharged 5G networks in the future.

In earlier deployments, 5G network will function in non-standalone mode and

standalone mode. In non-standalone mode, both LTE spectrum and 5G-NR spectrum
will be used together. Control signaling will be connected to the LTE core network in
non-standalone mode.

There will be a dedicated 5G core network higher bandwidth 5G – NR spectrum for

standalone mode. The sub-6-GHz spectrum of FR1 ranges are used in the initial
deployments of 5G networks.

In order to achieve a higher data rate, 5G technology will use millimeter waves and
unlicensed spectrums for data transmission. A complex modulation technique has been
developed to support massive data rates for the Internet of Things.

Cloud-based network architecture will extend the functionalities and analytical

capabilities for industries, autonomous driving, healthcare and security applications.

Key features of 5G technology

 Ultra-fast mobile internet up to 10Gbps

 Low latency in milliseconds (significant for mission-critical applications)
 Total cost deduction for data
 Higher security and reliable network
 Uses technologies like small cells and beamforming to improve efficiency
 Forward compatibility network offers further enhancements in future
 Cloud-based infrastructure offers power efficiency, easy maintenance, and
upgrade of hardware
 4G Transmission Fundamentals

4G is known as the fourth Generation of Mobile Communication or wireless

communication technology, which is the successor of the 3G network. It provides high
data transmission speed and is suitable for HD video calling, fast download and upload,
live streaming, online gaming, etc. A 4G system must adhere to the capabilities and
features specified by the ITU(International Telecommunication Union) in IMT
advanced, including transmission technology and data speed. 4G network provides up
to 100 Mbps speed to users, far higher than a 3G network.

4G enables users to stream high-definition audio and videos without interruption due
to its high speed. It also facilitates wireless broadband that allows the users to access
the internet without any need for fixed wired.

Features of 4G Mobile Network

 It aims to provide high data transmission speed without interruption at any location.
 As per ITU standard, a 4G network system must have the highest data rates of
100Mbs for highly mobile stations like trains, cars etc.
 It provides seamless switching across heterogenous network areas.
 It is very well suitable for the transmission of voice, data, signals, multimedia,
wireless internet, and other broadband services.
 It provides high speed at a low cost.
 Global mobility, service portability, scalable mobile networks.
 It provides a better way for scheduling and calling admission control techniques.

LTE (Long-Term Evolution)

LTE stands for Long-Term evolution, a standard for high-speed wireless
communication commonly used in 4G connections. It is technically different from 4G,
i.e., 4G and 4G LTE are not technically the same. LTE data is transmitted with faster
speed and lower latency. The connectivity for the LTE network is available universally
around the world for both customers and industrial applications.
The term LTE is specifically used for marketing purposes, as specified speed and
technical specifications defined for 4G were not achievable when it was introduced.
Hence LTE provides much more speed and bandwidth than 3G but does not imply a
specific rate. Depending on the carrier, speed ranges from 20 Mbps to 100 Mbps

4G Network working

At a basic level, a 4G mobile connection transmits the signal via an antenna over radio
frequencies, which allows mobile devices to connect to mobile networks.

The 4G capabilities for transmitting and receiving the signal are based on Multiple
Input and Multiple Output (MIMO) and Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing (OFDM) technologies. Due to these technologies, 4G offers high
capacity and bandwidth comparison to 3G.

MIMO technology reduces network congestion as compared to 3G, and hence services
can be served to more users without network congestion.
4G network supports all-IP standards for both voice and data transmission. 4G is more
efficient for mobile network providers to operate and optimize than managing different
network technologies for voice and data because of the all-IP network.

Advantages of 4G

 With a 4G connection, users don't need any phone line or wired connection. Instead,
it works using the same internet connection as the mobile phone.
 4G provides portability, which means with this connection, users can take the
internet anywhere at any time.
 With 4G, the cost of internet services has fallen down highly compared to 3G.
Hence, it gives high-speed internet at less cost.
 Nowadays, everything is being hosted online, and hence users require high internet
to work with cloud services, and it is possible with 4G (and upcoming 5G)
connections.

Disadvantages of 4G

 It depends on the network signal; if the signal gets weaker, then the user
experiences slow and unstable services.
 It needs more battery consumption.

Time domain concepts- Frequency domain concepts

Time Domain Concepts

Viewed as a function of time, an electromagnetic signal can be either analog or digital.
An analog signal is one in which the signal intensity varies in a smooth fashion over
time. In other words, there are no breaks or discontinuities in the signal.
A digital signal is one in which the signal intensity maintains a constant level for some
period of time and then changes to another constant level. Figure 1 shows examples of
both kinds of signals.The analog signal might represent speech, and the digital signal
might represent binary 1s and 0s.
The simplest sort of signal is a periodic signal, in which the same signal pattern repeats
over time. Figure 2 shows an example of a periodic analog signal (sine wave) and a
periodic digital signal (square wave). Mathematically, a signal s(t) is defined to be
periodic if and only if

where the constant T is the period of the signal (T is the smallest value that satisfies the
equation). Otherwise, a signal is aperiodic.
The sine wave is the fundamental analog signal. A general sine wave can be represented
by three parameters: peak amplitude (A), frequency (f), and phase (φ)
The peak amplitude is the maximum value or strength of the signal over time; typically,
this value is measured in volts. The frequency is the rate [in cycles per second, or Hertz
(Hz)] at which the signal repeats. An equivalent parameter is the period (T) of a signal,
which is the amount of time it takes for one repetition; therefore, T=1/f. Phase is a
measure of the relative position in time within a single period of a signal, as illustrated
later. The general sine wave can be written

A function with the form of Equation (1) is known as a sinusoid. Figure 3 shows the
effect of varying each of the three parameters. In part (a) of the figure, the frequency
is 1 Hz; thus the period is T=1 Second Part (b) has the same frequency and phase but
a peak amplitude of 0.5. In part (c) we have f=2 which is equivalent to T=1/2 Finally,
part (d) shows the effect of a phase shift of ᴨ/4 radians, which is 45 degrees (2ᴨ
radians = 360° = 1 period.
In Figure 3 the horizontal axis is time; the graphs display the value of a signal at a given
point in space as a function of time. These same graphs, with a change of scale, can
apply with horizontal axes in space. In that case, the graphs display the value of a signal
at a given point in time as a function of distance. For example, for a sinusoidal
transmission (say, an electromagnetic radio wave some distance from a radio antenna
or sound some distance from loudspeaker) at a particular instant of time, the intensity
of the signal varies in a sinusoidal way as a function of distance from the source.
There is a simple relationship between the two sine waves, one in time and one in
space.The wavelength (λ) of a signal is the distance occupied by a single cycle, or, put
another way, the distance between two points of corresponding phase of two
consecutive cycles. Assume that the signal is traveling with a velocity v. Then the
wavelength is related to the period as follows: λ=vT. Equivalently,λf=v of particular
relevance to this discussion is the case where v=c the speed of light in free
space, which is approximately 3X108 m/s.
 Frequency Domain Concepts

In practice, an electromagnetic signal will be made up of many frequencies. For

example, the signal

is shown in Figure 4c. The components of this signal are just sine waves of frequencies
f and 3f; parts (a) and (b) of the figure show these individual components.
There are two interesting points that can be made about this figure:
• The second frequency is an integer multiple of the first frequency. When all of the
frequency components of a signal are integer multiples of one frequency, the latter
frequency is referred to as the fundamental frequency.
• The period of the total signal is equal to the period of the fundamental frequency. The
period of the component Sin(2ᴨft) is T=1/f and the period of s(t) is also T, as can be
seen from Figure 4c.
It can be shown, using a discipline known as Fourier analysis, that any signal is made
up of components at various frequencies, in which each component is a sinusoid. By
adding together enough sinusoidal signals, each with the appropriate amplitude,
frequency, and phase, any electromagnetic signal can be constructed. Put another way,
any electromagnetic signal can be shown to consist of a collection of periodic analog
signals (sine waves) at different amplitudes, frequencies, and phases. The importance
of being able to look at a signal from the frequency perspective (frequency domain)
rather than a time perspective (time domain) should become clear as the discussion
proceeds

The spectrum of a signal is the range of frequencies that it contains. For the signal of
Figure 4c, the spectrum extends from f to 3f. The absolute bandwidth of a signal is the
width of the spectrum. In the case of Figure 4c, the bandwidth is 3f-f=2f.

Many signals have an infinite bandwidth, but with most of the energy contained in a
relatively narrow band of frequencies. This band is referred to as the effective
bandwidth, or just bandwidth.
Relationship between Data Rate and Bandwidth
There is a direct relationship between the information-carrying capacity of a signal and
its bandwidth: The greater the bandwidth, the higher the information-carrying capacity.
As a very simple example, consider the square wave of Figure 2b. Suppose that we let
a positive pulse represent binary 0 and a negative pulse represent binary 1. Then the
waveform represents the binary stream 0101. The duration of each pulse is 1/(2f); thus
the data rate is 2f bits per second (bps). What are the frequency components of this
signal? To answer this question, consider again Figure 4. By adding together sine waves
at frequencies f and 3f, we get a waveform that begins to resemble the square wave. Let
us continue this process by adding a sine wave of frequency 5f, as shown in Figure 5a,
and then adding a sine wave of frequency 7f, as shown in Figure 5b. As we add
additional odd multiples of f, suitably scaled, the resulting waveform approaches that
of a square wave more and more closely. Indeed, it can be shown that the frequency
components of the square wave with amplitudes A and can be expressed as follows:

This waveform has an infinite number of frequency components and hence an infinite
bandwidth. However, the peak amplitude of the kth frequency component, kf, is only
1/k, so most of the energy in this waveform is in the first few frequency components.

ANALOG AND DIGITAL DATA TRANSMISSION

The terms analog and digital correspond, roughly, to continuous and discrete,
respectively. These two terms are used frequently in data communications in at least
three contexts: data, signals, and transmission. Briefly, we define data as entities that
convey meaning, or information. Signals are electric or electromagnetic representations
of data.Transmission is the communication of data by the propagation and processing
of signals. In what follows, we try to make these abstract concepts clear by discussing
the terms analog and digital as applied to data, signals, and transmission.

Analog and Digital Signaling

In a communications system, data are propagated from one point to another by means
of electromagnetic signals. An analog signal is a continuously varying electromagnetic
wave that may be propagated over a variety of media, depending on
frequency; examples are copper wire media, such as twisted pair and coaxial cable;
fiber optic cable; and atmosphere or space propagation (wireless). A digital signal is
a sequence of voltage pulses that may be transmitted over a copper wire medium; for
example, a constant positive voltage level may represent binary 0 and a constant
negative voltage level may represent binary 1. The principal advantages of digital
signaling are that it is generally cheaper than analog signaling and is less susceptible to
noise interference. The principal disadvantage is that digital signals suffer more from
attenuation than do analog signals

Finally, digital data can be represented directly, in binary form, by two voltage levels.
To improve propagation characteristics, however, the binary data are often encoded into
a more complex form of digital signal, as explained subsequently.

• Digital data, digital signal: In general, the equipment for encoding digital data into
a digital signal is less complex and less expensive than digital-to analog equipment.
• Analog data, digital signal: Conversion of analog data to digital form permits the
use of modern digital transmission and switching equipment for analog data.

• Digital data, analog signal: Some transmission media, such as optical fiber and
satellite, will only propagate analog signals.
• Analog data, analog signal: Analog data are easily converted to an analog signal

Analog and Digital Transmission

Both analog and digital signals may be transmitted on suitable transmission media. The
way these signals are treated is a function of the transmission system. Table 1b
summarizes the methods of data transmission. Analog transmission is a means of
transmitting analog signals without regard to their content; the signals may represent
analog data (e.g., voice) or digital data (e.g., data that pass through a modem). In either
case, the analog signal will suffer attenuation that limits the length of the transmission
link. To achieve longer distances, the analog transmission system includes amplifiers
that boost the energy in the signal. Unfortunately, the amplifier also boosts the noise
components.With amplifiers cascaded to achieve long distance, the signal becomes
more and more distorted. For analog data, such as voice, quite a bit of distortion can be
tolerated and the data remain intelligible. However, for digital data transmitted as
analog signals, cascaded amplifiers will introduce errors.
Digital transmission, in contrast, is concerned with the content of the signal. We have
mentioned that a digital signal can be propagated only a limited distance before
attenuation endangers the integrity of the data. To achieve greater distances, repeaters
are used. A repeater receives the digital signal, recovers the pattern of ones and zeros,
and re transmits a new signal. Thus, the attenuation is overcome. The same technique
may be used with an analog signal if the signal carries digital data. At appropriately
spaced points, the transmission system has retransmission devices rather than
amplifiers.The retransmission device recovers the digital data from the analog signal
and generates a new, clean analog signal.Thus, noise is not cumulative.

CHANNEL CAPACITY

A variety of impairments can distort or corrupt a signal. A common impairment is noise,

which is any unwanted signal that combines with and hence distorts the signal intended
for transmission and reception. For the purposes of this section, we simply need to know
that noise is something that degrades signal quality. For digital data, the question that
then arises is to what extent these impairments limit the data rate that can be achieved.
The maximum rate at which data can be transmitted over a given communication path,
or channel, under given conditions is referred to as the channel capacity.
There are four concepts here that we are trying to relate to one another:
• Data rate: This is the rate, in bits per second (bps), at which data can be
communicated.
• Bandwidth: This is the bandwidth of the transmitted signal as constrained by the
transmitter and the nature of the transmission medium, expressed in cycles per second,
or Hertz.
• Noise: For this discussion, we are concerned with the average level of noise over the
communications path.
• Error rate: This is the rate at which errors occur, where an error is the reception of a
1 when a 0 was transmitted or the reception of a 0 when a 1 was transmitted.

The problem we are addressing is this: Communications facilities are expensive and, in
general, the greater the bandwidth of a facility, the greater the cost. Furthermore, all
transmission channels of any practical interest are of limited bandwidth.The limitations
arise from the physical properties of the transmission medium or from deliberate
limitations at the transmitter on the bandwidth to prevent interference from other
sources. Accordingly, we would like to make as efficient use as possible of a given
bandwidth. For digital data, this means that we would like to get as high a data rate as
possible at a particular limit of error rate for a given bandwidth.The main constraint on
achieving this efficiency is noise.

Nyquist Bandwidth

To begin, let us consider the case of a channel that is noise free. In this environment,
the limitation on data rate is simply the bandwidth of the signal. A formulation of this
limitation, due to Nyquist, states that if the rate of signal transmission is 2B, then a
signal with frequencies no greater than B is sufficient to carry the signal rate. The
converse is also true: Given a bandwidth of B, the highest signal rate that can be carried
is 2B. This limitation is due to the effect of intersymbol interference, such as is
produced by delay distortion.3 The result is useful in the development of digital-to
analog encoding schemes.
Note that in the preceding paragraph, we referred to signal rate. If the signals to be
transmitted are binary (take on only two values), then the data rate that can be supported
by B Hz is 2B bps. As an example, consider a voice channel being used, via modem, to
transmit digital data. Assume a bandwidth of 3100 Hz. Then the capacity, C, of the
channel is 2B=6200 bps. Signals with more than two levels can be used; that is, each
signal element can represent more than one bit. For example, if four possible voltage
levels are used as signals, then each signal element can represent two bits. With
multilevel signaling, the Nyquist formulation becomes

where M is the number of discrete signal elements or voltage levels. Thus, for M=8 a
value used with some modems, a bandwidth of B=3100Hz yields a capacity C=18600
bps.

Shannon Capacity Formula

Nyquist’s formula indicates that, all other things being equal, doubling the bandwidth
doubles the data rate. Now consider the relationship among data rate, noise, and error
rate. The presence of noise can corrupt one or more bits. If the data rate is increased,
then the bits become “shorter” in time, so that more bits are affected by a given pattern
of noise. Thus, at a given noise level, the higher the data rate, the higher the error rate.

Above figure is an example of the effect of noise on a digital signal. Here the noise
consists of a relatively modest level of background noise plus occasional larger spikes
of noise. The digital data can be recovered from the signal by sampling the received
waveform once per bit time. As can be seen, the noise is occasionally sufficient to
change a 1 to a 0 or a 0 to a 1.
All of these concepts can be tied together neatly in a formula developed by the
mathematician Claude Shannon. As we have just illustrated, the higher the data rate,
the more damage that unwanted noise can do. For a given level of noise, we would
expect that a greater signal strength would improve the ability to receive data correctly
in the presence of noise. The key parameter involved in this reasoning is the signal-to-
noise ratio (SNR, or S/N),4 which is the ratio of the power in a signal to the power
contained in the noise that is present at a particular point in the transmission. Typically,
this ratio is measured at a receiver, because it is at this point that an attempt is made to
process the signal and eliminate the unwanted noise. For convenience, this ratio is often
reported in decibels:
This expresses the amount, in decibels, that the intended signal exceeds the noise level.
A high SNR will mean a high-quality signal. The signal-to-noise ratio is important in
the transmission of digital data because it sets the upper bound on the achievable data
rate. Shannon’s result is that the maximum channel capacity, in bits per second, obeys
the equation

where C is the capacity of the channel in bits per second and B is the bandwidth of the
channel in Hertz.

TRANSMISSION MEDIA

In a data transmission system, the transmission medium is the physical path between
transmitter and receiver. Transmission media can be classified as guided or unguided.
In both cases, communication is in the form of electromagnetic waves. With guided
media, the waves are guided along a solid medium, such as copper twisted pair, copper
coaxial cable, or optical fiber. The atmosphere and outer space are examples of
unguided media, which provide a means of transmitting electromagnetic signals but
do not guide them; this form of transmission is usually referred to as wireless
transmission.
The characteristics and quality of a data transmission are determined both by the
characteristics of the medium and the characteristics of the signal. In the case of guided
media, the medium itself is usually more important in determining the limitations of
transmission. For unguided media, the bandwidth of the signal produced by the
transmitting antenna is usually more important than the medium in determining
transmission characteristics. One key property of signals transmitted by antenna is
directionality. In general, signals at lower frequencies are omnidirectional; that is, the
signal propagates in all directions from the antenna. At higher frequencies, it is possible
to focus the signal into a directional beam

Above Figure depicts the electromagnetic spectrum and indicates the frequencies at
which various guided media and unguided transmission techniques operate. In the
remainder of this section, we provide a brief overview of unguided, or wireless, media.
For unguided media, transmission and reception are achieved by means of an antenna.
For transmission, the antenna radiates electromagnetic energy into the medium (usually
air), and for reception, the antenna picks up electromagnetic waves from the
surrounding medium. There are basically two types of configurations for wireless
transmission: directional and omnidirectional. For the directional configuration, the
transmitting antenna puts out a focused electromagnetic beam; the transmitting and
receiving antennas must therefore be carefully aligned. In the omnidirectional case, the
transmitted signal spreads out in all directions and can be received by many antennas.
Terrestrial Microwave
Physical Description
The most common type of microwave antenna is the parabolic “dish.” A typical size is
about 3 m in diameter. The antenna is fixed rigidly and focuses a narrow beam to
achieve line-of-sight transmission to the receiving antenna. Microwave antennas are
usually located at substantial heights above ground level to
extend the range between antennas and to be able to transmit over intervening
obstacles.To achieve long-distance transmission, a series of microwave relay towers is
used, and point-to-point microwave links are strung together over the desired distance.
Applications
A primary use for terrestrial microwave systems is in long-haul telecommunications
service, as an alternative to coaxial cable or optical fiber. The microwave facility
requires far fewer amplifiers or repeaters than coaxial cable over the same distance but
requires line-of-sight transmission. Microwave is commonly used for both voice and
television transmission.
Another increasingly common use of microwave is for short point-to-point links
between buildings. This can be used for closed-circuit TV or as a data link between
local area networks. Short-haul microwave can also be used for the so-called bypass
application. A business can establish a microwave link to a long-distance
telecommunications facility in the same city, bypassing the local telephone company.

Satellite Microwave

Physical Description
A communication satellite is, in effect, a microwave relay station. It is used to link two
or more ground-based microwave transmitter/receivers, known as earth stations, or
ground stations. The satellite receives transmissions on one frequency band (uplink),
amplifies or repeats the signal, and transmits it on another frequency (downlink).A
single orbiting satellite will operate on a number of frequency bands, called transponder
channels, or simply transponders.
Applications
The communication satellite is a technological revolution as important as fiber optics.
The following are among the most important applications for satellites:
• Television distribution
• Long-distance telephone transmission
• Private business networks
Broadcast Radio
Physical Description
The principal difference between broadcast radio and microwave is that the former is
omnidirectional and the latter is directional. Thus broadcast radio does not require dish-
shaped antennas, and the antennas need not be rigidly mounted to a precise alignment.
Applications
Radio is a general term used to encompass frequencies in the range of 3 kHz to 300
GHz. We are using the informal term broadcast radio to cover the VHF and part of the
UHF band: 30 MHz to 1 GHz. This range covers FM radio and UHF and VHF television.
This range is also used for a number of data networking applications.

Infrared
Infrared communications is achieved using transmitters/receivers (transceivers) that
modulate noncoherent infrared light. Transceivers must be within the line of sight of
each other either directly or via reflection from a light-colored surface such as the
ceiling of a room. One important difference between infrared and microwave
transmission is that the former does not penetrate walls. Thus the security and
interference problems encountered in microwave systems are not present. Furthermore,
there is no frequency allocation issue with infrared, because no licensing is required.
Signaling Schemes in Wireless Communication

Signaling schemes in wireless communication define how information is encoded and transmitted over the air.
They are critical for ensuring efficient, reliable, and high-speed data transfer. These schemes can be categorized
based on how information is modulated onto a carrier signal.

1. Analog Signaling

Used for transmitting analog signals such as voice and video over wireless channels.

 Amplitude Modulation (AM):

o Varies the amplitude of the carrier signal according to the information signal.
o Example: AM radio broadcasting.
 Frequency Modulation (FM):
o Varies the carrier's frequency according to the information signal.
o Example: FM radio broadcasting.
 Phase Modulation (PM):
o Varies the phase of the carrier signal in proportion to the information signal.
o Example: Some legacy communication systems.

2. Digital Signaling

Used for transmitting digital data, offering better noise immunity and higher data rates.

(a) Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK):

 Encodes data by varying the amplitude of the carrier signal.

 Simple but susceptible to noise.
 Example: Low-rate wireless systems.
(b) Frequency Shift Keying (FSK):

 Encodes data by varying the frequency of the carrier signal.

 Example: Bluetooth.

(c) Phase Shift Keying (PSK):

 Encodes data by varying the phase of the carrier signal.

 Variants include:
o Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK): Uses two phase states (0° and 180°).
o Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK): Uses four phase states (0°, 90°, 180°, 270°), doubling the
data rate.
o Higher-order PSK (e.g., 8-PSK): Increases efficiency by using more phase states.

(d) Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM):

 Combines amplitude and phase modulation for higher data rates.

 Common in modern wireless systems like Wi-Fi (802.11) and LTE.

3. Spread Spectrum Techniques

Used for robust and secure communication.

 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS): Spreads the signal over a wide frequency band.
 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS): Signal frequency hops over a wide range.

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

FHSS works by rapidly changing (hopping) the carrier frequency over a wide range according to a predefined
pattern.

 How it Works:
o The transmitter switches the frequency of the signal periodically based on a hopping sequence known to
both the transmitter and receiver.
o Each "hop" lasts for a short duration before switching to the next frequency.
 Advantages:
o Resistant to interference because the signal doesn't stay on a single frequency.
o Harder to intercept or jam since the hopping pattern is difficult to predict.
 Example Use:
o Bluetooth and early wireless communication systems.
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

DSSS spreads the original signal over a much wider bandwidth by multiplying it with a high-rate pseudo-
random code.

 How it Works:
o The original data is combined with a spreading code (a sequence of 1s and 0s at a much higher
frequency).
o This produces a signal that looks like noise but can be decoded by the receiver using the same code.
 Advantages:
o Resistant to interference and noise because most of the unwanted signals fall outside the wide bandwidth.
o More secure because the signal appears as random noise to eavesdroppers without the spreading code.
 Example Use:
o Wi-Fi (802.11b) and GPS systems.

4. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)

A modern multi-carrier signaling scheme where the data is transmitted on multiple orthogonal sub-carriers.

 Highly resistant to multipath interference.

 Used in:
o Wi-Fi (802.11a/g/n/ac/ax).
o 4G LTE and 5G NR.

5. Multiple Access Schemes

Enable multiple users to share the same communication channel.

 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA): Divides bandwidth into distinct frequency channels.
 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) is a communication method where the available
frequency spectrum is divided into smaller, non-overlapping frequency bands, with each user assigned a
dedicated band for transmission and reception. This ensures minimal interference between users and
allows continuous communication. While FDMA is simple to implement and effective for analog
systems, it can be inefficient because unused frequency bands cannot be reallocated dynamically.
Additionally, guard bands are required to prevent overlap between adjacent channels, reducing overall
spectrum efficiency. FDMA has been widely used in early cellular networks (e.g., 1G), traditional radio
and TV broadcasting, and satellite communication, though it has largely been replaced by more
advanced techniques in modern networks.
  Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA): Divides bandwidth into time slots.
 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA): Spreads signals using unique codes.
 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA): Extends OFDM for multiple users in systems like
LTE and 5G.
 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) is a modern communication technique
used in wireless networks where multiple users share the same frequency spectrum by dividing it into
smaller subcarriers. These subcarriers are orthogonal to each other, meaning they do not interfere,
allowing efficient and simultaneous communication for multiple users.

In OFDMA, the available frequency is split into subcarriers, and each user is assigned a subset of these
subcarriers for transmitting and receiving data. This makes it highly flexible and efficient, as users can
be allocated different numbers of subcarriers based on their data needs. OFDMA is resistant to
interference and multipath fading, as the smaller subcarriers can handle variations in signal quality more
effectively. It also enables dynamic resource allocation, making it ideal for modern applications.

OFDMA is widely used in advanced wireless systems like Wi-Fi (802.11ax), 4G LTE, and 5G
networks, offering better spectrum efficiency, high-speed data transmission, and support for many users
in the same frequency band.

6. Advanced Techniques

 Massive MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output): Uses multiple antennas for increased capacity and
reliability.
 Beamforming: Focuses the signal energy in specific directions for efficiency.
 Millimeter Waves: Exploits high-frequency bands for high data rates in 5G.

Each scheme is tailored to meet specific requirements like data rate, range, and reliability, depending on the
application.

Transmission Media

Transmission media are the physical pathways or channels used to transmit data, signals, or information
between devices in a communication system. They are broadly categorized into two types: guided (wired) and
unguided (wireless) media.
1. Guided (Wired) Media

Guided media use physical cables to transmit signals. The data travels along a specific path, offering better
control and less interference.

Types of Guided Media:

1. Twisted Pair Cable:

o Consists of pairs of insulated copper wires twisted together.
o Types:
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): Common in telephones and LANs.
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): Has additional shielding for reduced interference.
o Example: Ethernet cables.
2. Coaxial Cable:
o Has a central copper core surrounded by insulation, shielding, and an outer layer.
o Provides better bandwidth and noise immunity.
o Example: Cable TV and internet connections.
3. Fiber Optic Cable:
o Uses light signals to transmit data through glass or plastic fibers.
o Advantages:
 High speed.
 Immune to electromagnetic interference.
 Can transmit data over long distances.
o Example: High-speed internet connections.

2. Unguided (Wireless) Media

Unguided media use electromagnetic waves to transmit signals through the air or space, without physical
cables.

Types of Unguided Media:

1. Radio Waves:
o Used for long-distance and mobile communication.
o Examples: AM/FM radio, television, and cellular networks.
2. Microwaves:
o High-frequency waves that travel in straight lines.
o Require line-of-sight for communication.
o Examples: Satellite communication and microwave links.
3. Infrared (IR):
o Short-range communication using infrared light.
 o Examples: Remote controls and some wireless keyboards/mice.
4. Satellite Communication:
o Uses satellites in orbit to relay signals between ground stations.
o Examples: GPS, satellite TV, and long-distance telephony.
5. Wi-Fi and Bluetooth:
o Use specific radio frequency bands for short-range wireless communication.
o Examples: Wireless internet and device pairing.