INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING AND DATA COMMUNICATION

Chapter outline

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Definition of terms used in networking
1.3 Types of computer networks
1.4 Purpose and limitations of networking
1.5 Elements of networking
1.6 Network topologies
1.7 Network security

Definition of terms used in networking

Computer network
A network can be defined as a collection of independent entities that are arranged in such a manner as
to exchange data, information or resources.
A computer network can be defined as a collection of computers linked together using transmission
media for the purpose of communication and resource sharing.
The term transmission media refers to any physical or non-physical link between two or more
computers and in which a signal can be made to flow from source to destination. Some of the shared
resources include programs, printers, fax machines, modems, storage devices, communication links etc.

Data communication
Data communication refers to the process of transmitting data signal from one point to another through
the network. If all aspects related to data communication are taken into consideration, computer
networking is the most recent, efficient and reliable means of transmitting data.

Terms used in data communication

Some of the terms used in data communication include: data signal, signal modulation and
demodulation, multiplexing, bandwidth, base band, broadband transmission and attenuation.

Data signal: A data signal is a voltage level in the circuit which represents the flow of data. In data
communication, data signals can either be analog or digital in nature. Analog data is made up of
continuous varying waveform while digital data is made up of a non-continuous discrete waveform.
Signal modulation and demodulation: This is the process of converting data signals to a form that is
suitable for transmission over a transmission medium. For example, a modem converts a digital signal
to analog by superimposing(overlying) it on an analog carrier signal which can be transmitted over
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analog telephone lines. This process is called modulation. A modem at the receiving end converts the
analog signal into digital form, a process known as demodulation.

Multiplexing: Multiplexing is the process of sending multiple data signals over the same medium e.g. a
wire conductor can be made to carry several data signals either simultaneously or at different times.
Demultiplexing is the process of separating the multiplexed signals at the receiving end. Imagine a
situation where one hundred computers in town A want to communicate with others of equal number in
town B. If multiplexing is not used, each of the computers in town A will need a direct cable linking it
to its partner in town B. However, with multiplexing, the computers can be made to share a single cable
laid between the two towns hence save cost. The different frequencies create what is called different
logical channels in the medium.

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Bandwidth: A bandwidth is the maximum amount of data that a transmission medium can carry at
anyone time. For example, a certain cable may have a bandwidth of 100 Mbps (Mega bits per second).

Baseband signal: Baseband signal is a digital signal that is generated and applied to the transmission
medium directly without modulation. The signal takes the form of voltages of different magnitudes
applied to the medium. The baseband signal utilises the full capacity of the transmission medium, hence
at anyone time; only one signal can be sent. However, multiple signals can be sent at different times if
they are multiplexed.

Broadband transmission: In broadband transmission, an analog signal is sent over the transmission
medium using a particular frequency. This means that several data signals can simultaneously be sent
through the same medium but at different frequencies. Frequency bands between these data signals
prevent them from overlapping.

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Attenuation: This is the decrease in magnitude and energy as a signal progressively moves along a
transmission medium. If the signal is not boosted, it will totally be lost along the way and may never
reach the destination. Attenuation or signal loss is usually corrected by placing signal amplifiers also
called repeater stations along the medium at appropriate distances in order to receive the weak signal,
clean it, amplify it then retransmit it.

Modes of data communication

There are three modes of data communication namely: Simplex, Half Duplex and Full Duplex.
Simplex transmission refers to communication in only one direction. An example of simplex
communication is the normal radio or television broadcast. The listener or viewer cannot communicate
back through the radio or television receiver back to the broadcaster.

Half duplex refers to communication in both directions but one direction at a time. A sender must send
the data before the recipient can reply. For example, if two police officers are communicating using a
'walkie talkie' radio, one has to say "over" to mark the end of every statement in order for the other to
respond.

Full duplex communication occurs in both directions simultaneously. An example of full duplex
communication can be found in computers that are sending and receiving data on a network.

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TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

Computer networks can be classified using several aspects but the most common classification is
according to size. Currently, there are several types of networks but the three most common are:
1. Local area network (LAN)
2. Metropolitan area network (MAN)
3. Wide area network (WAN)

Local area network (LAN)

Local area network is a computer network that spans a relatively small geographical area like in one
building or a school. One local area network can be connected to other local area network over any
distance via data transmission lines or wireless media.
Most local area networks connect personal computers and server computers on a small network. A
server computer is a computer dedicated to servicing requests for resources from other computers
(workstations) on a network. Most local area networks are configured such that each workstation has its
own central processing unit with which it executes programs, but it is also able to access data and
devices anywhere on the local area network. Local area networks enable many users- to share expensive
devices, such as laser printers, as well as data. Users can also use the local area network to communicate
with each other, by sending messages or engaging in chat sessions.
Local area networks are capable of transmitting data at very fast rates, much faster than data transmitted
over telephone lines. .

Metropolitan area networks (MAN)

A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a metropolitan area like a town or city. The
metropolitan area network size typically covers a radius of between 5 to 50 km. The metropolitan area
network infrastructure may be owned by a single company that has offices across a metropolitan area or
by a service provider who provides network services to subscribers in the area. In essence, a
metropolitan area network is made up of many local area networks in a metropolitan area.

Wide area networks (WAN)

A wide area network is larger than a metropolitan area network and covers a large geographical area
such as a country, a continent or the whole world. It consists of many local area networks and
metropolitan area networks connected together to form one large network such as the Internet.

Purpose and limitations of networking

Purpose of networking
Some of the reasons for setting up computer networks include: resource sharing, remote
communication, distributed processing facilities, cost effectiveness and reliability.
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Resource sharing
A resource in the network environment means data/information, files, printers, modems, communication
links, storage devices, fax machines, application programs and any other component that can' be
attached to the network for access by users.
Take for example an office setup where a number of users in a small business require access to
Common information. As long as all the computers are connected, they can share their files, exchange
mail, send faxes, schedule meetings and print documents from any point on the network. Users do not
need to transfer files via removable storage but would send the work to a network printer. This
centralized access to data and information leads to less waste of time and hence greater productivity.
Imagine the benefits of a user being able to directly fax a document from the softcopy in his/her word
processor, rather than having to print it out, and then feed it into the fax machine.
In most network arrangements, the shared resources may be attached to a network server. The other
computers on the network that send requests to the server are referred to as clients or workstations.
Network servers run a special program called the server software which controls computers on the
network and listens to client requests to service them over the network. For example, a print server will
give permission for a particular client to print documents on the network printer. Figure 1.2 shows a
simple diagram representing a computer network that is controlled by a server.

Remote communications
In the present computing environment, computer engineers are faced with two basic problems.
1. Roaming of officers who by virtue of their work keep on covering long distances away from the
workplace.
2. Access to the organization’s information resources so that they can have up-to-date data or at least
update the information servers with the status quo in the field.

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Initially, the problem of roaming was addressed by the development of portable computers like laptops.
But problem of access to the network's information server remained! However, both problems have
been addressed by remote communication. Remote communication refers to the transmission of data
signals between two communication devices located at different geographical locations. A computer
that tries to access resources from another computer on the network is called a remote client while the
computer being accessed is called a remote host. Remote communication has been made possible by use
of wireless transmission media such as radio waves, microwave and satellite as will be discussed in
details later.
It is through remote communications that people can be able to share ideas and pass messages over the
Internet.

Therefore, remote communications give a lot of freedom to the network users which translates to more
productivity. Imagine continuing to work from home just as if you were in your office.

Distributed processing facilities

Distributed processing refers to the act of running the same programs or databases on different
computers which are on the same network. However, users will not know that the processing is
distributed but will think that everything is taking place on computer. The output can then be
transmitted to another computer or the central computer on an organisations network. Before the advent
of distributed processing, many organisations had centralised systems of management. This meant that
all the data and information were sent from the dumb terminal (workstation with no processing power)
for processing and storage in a central computer. It therefore followed that processing of data, release of
information and decision making was centralised too.
However, with distributed processing, files reside on the user's computer rather than on a central
computer. Branch offices in a large organization have their own servers that store data, information and
other resources required for their daily operations. These servers would then periodically update the
central computer.
This model of data processing has a number of advantages. These include:

1. The failure of the central computer does not affect the operations of the other terminals.
2. Processing load is shared equally hence no time wastage.

Cost effectiveness
Networks are cost effective in the organization. Although the initial purchase and lying down of
network components may be expensive, the savings experienced and the value added to service delivery
make them a ready choice for enterprising managers.
One good thing about a network is that it greatly increases the efficient use of scarce resources. Imagine
a large organization that has stand alone computers only. In such a case, the management has to buy a

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printer for each computer. However, with a network, only one printer is sufficient. The same applies to
other resources like fax machines, optical drives, files and applications.
It should also be noted that computer networks have enhanced daily communication by providing a
paperless communication environment. Users can send electronic messages and mail to each other
instead of having to bear the cost of stamp duty or delivery charges. On the same note, company
executives may not need to travel across continents to hold meetings. They can hold electronic video
conferences instead and save the fare.
Reliability
A computer network is reliable in two ways especially when communicating or accessing information:
1. Data can be transferred with minimum error from source to destination.
2. In case one computer breaks down, a user can still access data and information from the other
computers using another computer on the network.

Limitations of networking
Although networking has many advantages it also offers many challenges that are associated with
implementation and human factors. Some of the limitations and disadvantages of networking include
security issues, high initial installation cost, moral and cultural effects, spread of terrorism and drug
trafficking and over reliance on networks among others.
Security issues
Data and information held on a network is prone to more illegal access threats than if the computer was
not on the network. For example, a stand alone computer may be accessed by only a few people at home
or in the office environment. However, once the computer is connected to the network, especially the
Internet, many people can access it not only physically but also virtually over the network. Apart from
this, when information is sent over the network from source to destination, it can be tapped or listened
to by unauthorized parties.
Organisations find it very challenging to guard information systems from constant threats of illegal
access. One of the common methods of data protection in a networked environment is encryption. This
is the scrambling of information into a complex unintelligible form. Encrypted data cannot be
understood by people who illegally access it unless they have the decryption key.
High initial cost
The initial cost of buying network hardware and software is very high. In fact, most institutions that
have not set up their networks more often than not quote prohibitive cost as a limiting factor.
Moral and cultural effects
Large networks like the Internet have chat rooms and messaging services that may enable underage
children to meet peers and adults on the net some of whom may have bad intentions. Access to
pornographic and other negative material has also made the fight against social problems such as
HIV/AIDS, bad sexual behaviour, drugs and substance abuse more complicated.

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Spread of terrorism and drug trafficking
The Internet provides a rich recruitment ground for all types of illegal activities such as terrorism and
drug trafficking. The easy flow of information from one place to another keeps even those who are on
the wrong side of the law communicating easily. Terrorists and drug traffickers use information
networks for their business communications. However, many countries have come up with methods of
policing the Internet to try and break such syndicates.
Over-reliance on networks
Modem organisations have phased out most manual operations this means that all business processes
and the society depend on computer networks. The disadvantage of this over reliance is that if by any
chance the network fails or goes down, then many systems in the society can be brought to a halt! For
instance, imagine the chaos if mobile phone services were to be abruptly brought to a halt. However,
proper systems and network planning should be made to avoid such occurrences.

ELEMENTS OF NETWORKING
A computer network is made up of several standard elements (components) which can be classified into
three major categories namely:
1. Data communication media.
2. Communication devices.
3. Networking software.
Data communication media
A data signal cannot be sent from one place to another without a medium of communication. A data
communication medium is a pathway used for carrying data and information from one point to another.
The communication medium will more often than not dictate the type of signal that will be used to
transmit a message. In essence, data communication media can be divided into two:
1. Communication using cable (bounded media)
2. Wireless communication (unbounded media)
Communication using cables (bounded media)
The main distinguishing characteristic of bounded media is that data signals are transmitted from the
source to the destination through a restricted pathway such as through a cable. For example, if the cable
is a copper conductor, the data signal which may be in form of an electrical signal is propagated through
the cable from the source to the destination. Any radiation from the guided medium is regarded as
signal loss.
There are several types of bounded transmission media but the most common ones are:
1. Two wire open lines cables.
2. Twisted pair cables.
3. Coaxial cables.
4. Fiber optic cables.
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Two wire open lines cables
Two wire open lines cables are made up of two parallel copper wires separated by a plastic insulator
they are used in telecommunication network to transmit voice signal e.g. the line running from a
subscriber’s house to the nearest telephone post.
Although the plastic insulator is meant to reduce inter-line interference called crosstalk their linear
nature allows an electromagnetic field to build around them during heavy data transmission which may
cause interference to the signal. The wires also capture environmental frequencies e.g. radio waves
hence causing noise in the transmission channel. In data communications, the word noise refers to
random unwanted signals picked up by the channel.

Twisted pair cables

A twisted pair cable is made up of two solid copper wire strands wound around each other in a double
helix manner the winding of the wires is meant to reduce the development of an electromagnetic field
around the two wires as they transmit data. These cables are mostly used to transmit both voice and data
signals. The two common types of twisted pair cables are the unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and
shielded twisted pair (STP) Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cables do not have a shield that prevents
electromagnetic interference (EMI) also called "electric noise" from the environment. The cable is
therefore susceptible to noise and signal interference. Noise may come from lightening sparks, radio
signal and even the radiations from spark plugs in motor vehicles. Unshielded twisted pair is therefore
not suitable for environments that are electrically "noisy”.
Shielded twisted pair (STP) is similar to unshielded twisted pair except that a braided shield is wrapped
around the wires to shield or protect them from noise.

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Twisted pair cables are categorised into five groups according to the type of data transmitted and
maximum rate of transmission, as shown below.
Table 1.1
Suitable for Speed (max. limit)
Category transmitting
1 Voice Less than 1Mbps
2 Data 1 Mbps
3 Data 16 Mbps
4 Data 20 Mbps
5 Data 100 Mbps

1. Mbps means Megabits per second.

2. Today’s networks are approaching speeds of Gigabits per second.
Most organisations today use category 5 twisted pair cables to set up their local area networks.
Although twisted pair cables can support high data rates (bandwidth) of up to 100 Mbps, they suffer
from attenuation. For every cable length of 90 m, a device for restoring the signal called a "repeater" is
needed to amplify the signal.

The advantages of twisted pair cabling include:

1. Telephone systems use UTP which is present in most buildings. This means that it is easier to set
up network media because connection is readily available.
2. Installation equipment is cheap and readily available.
3. It is cheap because of mass production for telephone use.
The disadvantages of twisted pair cabling include:
1. It suffers high attenuation.
2. It is sensitive to electromagnetic interference and eavesdropping.
3. It has low data transmission rates as compared to other cables.
Coaxial cables
A coaxial cable resembles the cable that is used to connect television antenna to a television set. This
cable has a central copper core which may be of solid or stranded wires surrounded by a dielectric
material (insulator). The dielectric material is then surrounded by a hollow mesh conductor which is
covered by a shield making the cable more resistant to electromagnetic interference than the twisted pair
cable.
The braid (or mesh conductor) is made of copper or aluminium and serves as the ground for the carrier
wire. Together with the insulation and any foil shield, the braid shield protects the carrier wire from
radio frequency interference (RFI) and electromagnetic interference (EMI). However, although the
cable has better protection against electrical interference than the twisted pair cables, it has a moderate

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protection against magnetic interference. The diameter of the centre core or conductor determines the
attenuation rate. The thinner the core, the higher the attenuation rate. Data is carried on the cable using
direct current (dc).
Coaxial cables have bandwidths of up to 1 Gbps (Gigabits per second). Hence, they are installed in a
network to form the network backbone (a link that connects two or more separate local area networks).
A good example where this cables are used is connecting different networks between buildings and
routing trunk calls in telecommunication companies. There are two types of coaxial cables:
1. Thin coaxial cable (Thinnet). It has one dielectric insulator
2. Thick coaxial cable (Thicknet). It has two dielectric insulators around the core and is thicker than the
thinnet

The advantages of coaxial cables include:

1. They are very stable even under high loads.
2. They have a large bandwidth (up to I Gbps) compared to twisted pair.
3. They can carry voice, data and video signal simultaneously.
4. They are more resistant to radio and electromagnetic interference than twisted pair cables.
The disadvantages of coaxial cables include:
1. Thick coaxial cable is hard to work with.

2. Coaxial cables are relatively expensive to buy and to install as compared to twisted pair.
Fiber optic cables
This is one of the latest types of bounded transmission media to be developed. Instead of carrying or
transmitting data signals using electronic signals, the fiber optic cable utilises light to transmit data from
one point to another on the network. The electrical signals from the source are converted to light
signals, and then propagated along the fiber optic cable. To convert an electric signal to light, you need
a Light Emitting Diode (LED) at the transmitter. At the receiving end, a photosensitive device can be
used to convert the light signals back to electric signals that can be processed by the computer.

The fiber optic cable is made up of the core, cladding, buffer, strength members and the jacket. .

The core: The core is the central part of the cable and is made of a hollow transparent plastic or glass.

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Cladding: This is a single protective layer surrounding the core. It has some light bending
characteristics in that, when the light tries to travel from the core to the cladding, it is redirected back to
the core. This is why even if a fiber optic cable is bent into coils and a light signal is inserted at one end
it will still be seen coming out from the other end.

Buffer: The buffer surrounds the cladding and its main function is to strengthen the cable.
The jacket: It is the outer covering of the cable.

Fiber optic cables are of two types namely:

1. Single mode fiber.
2. Multimode fiber.
The single mode fiber cable has a very narrow centre core the light in the cable can therefore take only
one path through it. Because of this, it has a very low attenuation rate and is preferred for long distance
transmission. It has a bandwidth of 50 Gbps which is higher than that of the twisted pair's 100 Mbps.
Single mode fiber is very expensive and requires very careful handling during installation.
A multimode fiber has a thicker core than the single mode it allows several light rays to be fed in the
cable at an angle. Because of multiple light signals navigating the cable at the same time, distortion of
the signal is possible. Multimode cables have a high attenuation rate and are usually used for shorter
distances than single mode.
The light signal travels through the core, through a process referred to as total internal reflection. The
process that causes total internal reflection is called refraction. Refraction is the bending of light when it
crosses the boundary of two mediums that have different density. When light signal is inserted into the
cable, it tries to cross from the core to the cladding. The light is bent back into the core hence
propagates along the length of the cable

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The figure below shows how a fibre based network transmits data from source to destination.

The advantages of fiber optic cabling include:

1. It is immune to electromagnetic interference and eavesdropping.
2. It is fast and supports high bandwidth.
3. Large distance can be covered because it has low attenuation.
4. Can be used in hazardous places (highly flammable) because they do not generate electrical signal.
5. It is smaller and lighter than copper cable hence ideal for space limited situations.
The disadvantages of fiber optic cabling include:
1. Connectivity devices and the media are expensive.
2. Installation is difficult because the cable must be carefully handled.
3. It is relatively complex to configure.
4. A broken cable is difficult and expensive to repair.
Wireless communication (unbounded media)
Wireless or unbounded media, is a type of media that is used to transmit data from one point to another
without using physical connections. In this case transmitting antenna and receiver aerial facilitate the
communication. Examples of wireless transmission media include microwaves, radio waves, and
infrared transmission all use different frequencies of the electromagnetic spectrum. All these waves
travel at the speed of light.
Microwave transmission
Microwave frequencies range from about 3GHz to 40GHz on the electromagnetic spectrum. Due to
their small wavelength, they easily release their energy in water as heat hence they are also used in
making microwave ovens used as domestic kitchen appliances. However, in networking, microwaves
are very suitable for point to point transmissions. This means that a signal is directed through a focused
beam from transmitter to the receiver station.

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Satellite communication
A satellite is a microwave relay station. The microwave earth stations have parabolic dishes with an
antenna fixed on them in order to focus a narrow beam towards the satellite in space. A satellite
transmission system has three main components:
1. Transmitter earth station that would set up an uplink to the satellite in order to transmit data. The
uplink will have a unique frequency.
2. A satellite that is somewhere in an orbit that receives, amplifies and retransmits the signal to a
receiving earth station via a downlink frequency that is different from that of the uplink so as to avoid
interference with the uplink signal.
3. Receiving earth station that would receive the sent signal on the other side of the globe.
A communication satellite is usually launched into space about 36 000 km above the earth in such a
manner that its speed will be relatively equal to the rotation speed of the earth. An observer on earth
will therefore, see as if the satellite is stationary in space. These types of satellites are called
geostationary satellites. They are convenient because the need to keep on moving the parabolic dish in a
bid to track the line of sight is eliminated. A geostationary satellite offers a large constant line of sight
to earth stations. The area on earth where the line of sight can easily be located is called the satellites
footprint. The satellite transmits the signal to many recipient earth stations to form a point to multipoint
transmission. In multipoint transmission the transmitted signal spreads out in all directions forming a
cell of access radius.

The new trends in microwave transmission have seen the use of very small aperture terminal (VSAT)
technology. This very small aperture terminal refers to a very small satellite dish used both in data,
radio and TV communication. Many businesses are adopting this new technology because it enables
direct access to satellite communication instead of having to go through the state owned or licensed
satellite gateways.

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The satellite produces strong signals that can be received by a satellite dish antenna of only about 2
metres in diameter. The signals are decoded using a decoder that is plugged directly to a television set
or a computer.

Radio communication
Radio waves travel just like surface water waves, i.e. they are omnidirectional. This means that they
start from a central point and spread outwards in all directions. As they travel outwards, their energy
spreads outwards over the covered area. The waves are radiated into the atmosphere by a radio
frequency antenna at constant velocity. Radio waves are not visible to the human eye.

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Radio waves are used in radio and television broadcasts. Data can also be transmitted over radio waves
communication channels. For example, instead of laying telephone cables between two towns that are
geographically separated, radiowave transmission can be used to connect the two towns. Radio waves
can be of high frequency, very high frequency or ultra-high frequency.

The high frequency (HF) radio waves signal is propagated by directing it to the ionosphere of the earth.
The ionosphere will reflect it back to the earth's surface and the receiver will pick the signal. Before the
advent of satellite communication, high frequency radio was the only way of communication beyond
the horizon such as communicating to a ship that is on the high seas or communication between
continents. The biggest challenge of high frequency communication is the danger of signal interception
by unauthorised parties.

Very high frequency (VHF) radio waves are transmitted along the earth's surface. Due to the curvature
of the earth, the signal will most likely attenuate at the horizon. This means that repeater stations have
to be placed strategically to maintain a line of sight in order to receive, amplify and propagate the signal
from one area to another. This technology is popular for the hand held radio devices like "walkie-talkie"
radios. The range of very high frequency is limited but it is preferred to high frequency where no major
obstructions are encountered on the landscape. This is because with very high frequency, it is possible
to make the wave to follow a narrower and more direct path to the receiver. To overcome the
obstructions on the earth surface like mountains and buildings, repeater stations are built on raised
areas.
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Ultra high frequency (UHF) radio waves are like very high frequency when it comes to the line of sight
principle. This means that there should be no barrier between the sending and the receiving aerial.
However, they require smaller aerials. Notice that the television aerial for very high frequency is bigger
than the one for ultra high frequency radio waves. This is because; ultra high frequency radio waves can
be made to follow an even narrower and direct path to the receiver than very high frequency radio
waves. Therefore ultra high frequency is popular for horizon limited broadcasts.

Bluetooth Technology

One of the latest radio transmission technologies is called Bluetooth technology. Bluetooth is a
worldwide and short-range radio technology that enables people to use hand held communication
devices such as cell phones and personal digital assistants to access the Internet. The main idea behind
Bluetooth communication is to try and define one standard that will allow all personal communication
devices regardless of their differences or size to be able to communicate with each other and through
wireless technology. The main component in Bluetooth is a small low power two-way radio transceiver,
small enough to be inserted in small devices. A network of bluetooth-enabled devices is called a
wireless personal area network (WPAN) or piconet. This is because bluetooth networks are best suited
for personal or hand held devices. This has made radio transmission to become very popular in mobile
communication and Internet connectivity.

Infrared transmission
Infrared waves fall just below the visible light on the electromagnetic spectrum. Just like the radio
waves, infrared waves are not visible to the human eye. Communication through this medium is
achieved by having infrared transmitters and receivers (transceivers). Transceivers of infrared signals
must be within a line of sight in the same room. This is because unlike radio signals, infrared signals
cannot penetrate obstacles like walls. However, the signal can be reflected off surfaces like walls and
ceiling until they reach their destination.

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An example of an infrared device is the infrared transceiver on most mobile phones. Once activated,
two people in the same room can send messages to each other using infrared technology on their
mobiles without going through the mobile service provider hence avoid being charged.

In computer networking environment, the technology can be used to connect devices in the same room
to each other without need for cables e.g. a computer to a printer. The computers infrared transceiver
must maintain a line of sight with the one for the printer.
Advantages of wireless communications
Wireless communication offers numerous advantages that justify the cost of laying down the network.
Some of the advantages are:
1. Wireless medium is flexible in operation as compared to bounded media i.e. devices can be
moved around without losing access to the network.
2. Wireless networks can span large geographical areas easily.
3. Wireless communication can take place via satellite even in very remote areas that do not
have high cost physical infrastructure like telephone lines.
Disadvantages of wireless communications include:
1. It is relatively difficult to establish or configure.
2. The initial cost is very high.

COMMUNICATION DEVICES
Computers and transmission media require communication devices for the network to be fully
operational. These devices are more or less used as interfaces or junctions between the terminal devices.
Terminal equipments are devices at both ends of the communication link such as a computer. Some
examples of data communication devices include network interface cards (NIC), modems and codec’s,
hubs, bridges, repeaters, routers, gateways, switches and access points.
Network interface cards (NIC)
Network interface cards (NIC) create a physical link between the computer and the transmission media.
A network interface card is plugged into an empty expansion slot on the motherboard. However, most
computer motherboards today come ready with an onboard network interface controller. The network
interface cards have ports at the back in which the terminated end of a network cable can be plugged.

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Modems and codecs
A modem is an important device in the world of communication. It converts a signal from digital to
analog form for the purpose of transmission over the analog media, while a codec converts an analog
signal to digital form for transmission via a digital medium. A modem can be external, an add-on card
or built on the motherboard.

Codec modem modem

Hubs
A hub also called a concentrator is a component that connects computers on a network and is able to
relay signals from one computer to another on the same network. A hub will usually connect networks
that have a common architecture i.e. one that has the same set of communication software usually
called protocols. Protocols are a set of rules that govern the communication between devices on a
network. A hub transmits signals by broadcasting them to all the computers on the network. After the
signal is broadcasted, the computer whose address is on the message picks the message from the
network that is part of the broadcast domain. Some hubs called intelligent hubs are able to monitor the
way computers are communicating on the network and keep the information in a small database of their
own called a management information base (MIB). The network server can then use this information to
fine-tune the network. Intelligent hubs can be able to manage a network by isolating computers that are
not functioning properly. Several hubs can be connected together one after another to expand a network.
However, this increases the broadcast range which may lead to broadcast storms on the network. The
term broadcast storm refers to a condition where a network is overwhelmed with message broadcasts
due to malfunctioning of network interface cards or hub related problems.

20
Bridges
This is a network device that selectively determines the appropriate network segment for which a
message is meant for delivery through address filtering. Hence a bridge can divide a busy network into
segments to reduce network traffic. The purpose of using a bridge therefore is to:
1. Extend the length and number of stations that a segment can support.

2. Reduce overall traffic flow by allowing broadcasts only in the destination segment of the network.

A bridge makes sure that packets that are not meant for a particular segment are not broadcast in that
segment.

Repeaters
A repeater receives a signal from one segment of a network, cleans it to remove any distortion, boosts it
and then sends it to another segment. Repeaters are the simplest way to expand a network because they
broadcast the same message to other network segments. However, this is advisable due to broadcast
storms that can develop. The repeater enables the network to eliminate attenuation problems.
Routers
The router interconnects different networks and directs the transfer of data packets from source to
destination. Routing depends on network addresses. Each network has a unique identifier or address
called the network address. Network addressing is enabled because of the use of a special
internetworking protocol called the Internet Protocol (IP). Hence, the network address is usually called
the IP address. All the computers on the same network have the same network address but different
host numbers. The router receives a packet from another router on the internet work and checks the
destinations network address. If the address is the same as the one on which the router is, it passes the
data packet to the destination host by reading the host address otherwise the packet will be routed to the
next network address. Some modem routing devices combine the functionality of a bridge and router.
Such a device is called a brouter.

21
Gateways
A gateway is any device that can be configured to provide access to wide area networks or Internet. One
such device is the router. Because of this reason most people confuse a gateway and a router. However
a gateway may not be necessarily a router, it may be a computer configured to provide access the
Internet. Figure 1.21 shows a logical diagram of a local area network connected to a wide area network
via gateways.

Switches
A switch, unlike a hub forwards a packet directly to the address node without broadcasting. A node
refers to data terminal equipment such as a workstation or computer on the network. The switch does
this by connecting two nodes point to point as if they were linked by a direct cable between them. This
reduces the broadcast problems on the networks. It is important to note that some hubs also incorporate
the switching mechanisms. Such a hub is referred to as a switching hub.
Typically, switches are more expensive than hubs. This means that one switch may be used as a bridge
to connect several hubs in order to reduce collision problems caused by broadcasts.

Wireless communication devices

For a long time, networks have been implemented using tangible transmission media like cables.
However, as the cost of wireless technology goes down and the quality of service increases, it is
becoming cost effective for companies and individuals to extend the capability of wired networks by
integrating wireless segments into their communications. Some of the most common devices used in
wireless communication include access points and the antenna.

22
Access points (AP)
The access point is one of the most common wireless network components As its name suggests, it is
an entry point into a bounded network for people who have wireless devices such as personal digital
assistants (PDA's), laptops and computers with wireless links.

Wireless antennae
The access point needs to have antennas in order to detect signals in the surrounding. The waves may be
radio waves, microwave or infrared waves in nature. In most cases, access points will have two
antennas so that the one that receives the best signal at any particular time can be used.

Personal computer memory card international association (PCMCIA) cards

A personal computer memory card international association is an add-on card inserted into a device
such as personal digital assistants or a laptop in order to enable wireless communication between the
devices and a wired network server.

23
Network software
Computer networks have evolved from the simple linking of computers on a common transmission
media to highly managed and optimised data and information transfer systems. This means that apart
from data communications, the focus is now squarely on how best to utilise network resources. The
issues of network security inter operatability and reliability have taken centre stage. Any network
manager will be faced with the question of network load balancing and adopting best routing
procedures.

All these tasks would be impossible if network software was not available. These software can be
classified into two main groups namely:
1. Network operating systems.
2. Network protocols.

Network operating systems

These are operating systems specifically designed to optimise the networked computers ability to
respond to service requests. Servers run on a network operating system. In addition to the functions of a
normal operating system, this software performs the following network related functions:
1. Provides access to network resources e.g. printers and folders.
2. Enables nodes on the network to communicate with each other more efficiently.
3. Supports interprocess communication i.e. enables the various processes on the network to
communicate with one another.
4. Respond to requests from application programs running on the network.
5. Supporting network services like network card drivers and protocols.
6. Implementing network security features.
In most cases, network operating systems are designed as multi-user operating systems that run the
network server program. Once installed on the right hardware platform and configured as a server, the
operating system will provide network management tools to network administrators. The administrator
can use the tools to do the following:
1. Secure the network against unauthorised access.
2. Track network usage and keep a log of all the people who have used the network.
3. Ensure inter-operatability between various systems on the network.
4. Performance monitoring to ensure maximum throughput on the network.

Examples of network operating systems are Windows NT/2000/2003, UNIX, Linux and Novell
Netware.

NB: Internetworking devices like routers also have operating systems of their own and hence they can
be managed and configured for optimum performance. Note that routers are special purpose computers.
24
Protocols
Protocols are set rules and procedures that govern communication between two different devices or
people. For example, a diplomat from a foreign country must adhere to the set of rules and procedures
of communication when representing his country in the host country.

In computer networking, protocols are the rules and technical procedures that govern communication
between different computers.
How protocols work
The data transmission process over the network has to be broken down into discrete systematic steps. At
each step, a certain action takes place. Each step has its own rules and procedures as defined by the
network protocols. The work of these protocols must be co-ordinated so that there are no conflicts or
incomplete operations. This co-ordination is achieved through protocol layering. Network protocols are
designed after the open systems interconnection (OSI) model. The open systems interconnection model
is not a protocol as such but is meant to help designers to come up with high quality layered protocols.
It has seven layers, each performing distinct functions as shown in Table 1.2.

Table 1.2

Layer Function
User applications run here and generate
7. Application layer requests for data transmission or open received
Information.
Adds formatting, display and encryption
6. Presentation layer
Information to the data being sent.
Sets up data transmission sessions between two
5. Session layer
Communicating devices.
Manages data transfer over the network to
4. Transport layer ensure
Reliability.
Address information is added to the data packet
3. Network layer
And routed to destination.
Adds error checking information and prepares
2. Data link layer
Data for going onto the physical connection.
The data packets are finally transmitted via the
1. Physical layer network card through the transmission media in
form of bits

25
Application protocols work at the highest layer of the OSI model. They provide services to application
programs. An example of an application program is an e-mail editor program that enables composing or
reading of e-mail messages. Examples of protocols at the application layer include:

1. Simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP) - An Internet protocol for transferring e-mails.
2. File transfer protocol (FTP) - An Internet protocol for file transfer.

3. Apple talk and apple share - Apple computers networking protocol suit.

Transport protocols ensure that data is passed between computers more reliably. Some examples
include:

1. Transmission control protocol (TCP): This is responsible for delivery of sequenced data over the
network.

2. Sequential packet exchange (SPX): This part of the Novell's internet work packet
exchange/sequential packet exchange (IPX/SPX) for sequenced data.

3. NetBEUI: A local area network protocol for Microsoft and 1MB networks that establishes
communication sessions between computers.

4. Apple transaction protocol (ATP): Apple computer's communication session and data transport
protocol.

Network protocols provide link services. They handle addressing and routing information, error
checking and retransmission of requests. Some examples of network layer protocols include:

1. Internet protocol (IP): It does packet forwarding and routing.

2. Internetwork packets exchange: Netware’s protocol for packet forwarding and routing.

Network topologies

The term network topology refers to the way in which computers and other devices have been arranged
or how data is passed from one computer to another in the network. Therefore network topology can be
viewed in two ways namely logical and physical topology.
Logical topology
Logical topology also called signal topology deals with the way data passes from one device to the next
on the network. Examples of logical topologies are Ethernet and token ring. This means that two
networks with different physical layout may have the same logical topology.

Ethernet topology

In Ethernet topology, all computers listen to the network media and can only send data when none of
the others is sending.

26
Token ring topology
In token ring topology, a special package for data called a token goes around the network and only the
computer whose address is on the data held in the token will take up the token to read the data then
release the token. The token can then be captured by another computer which needs to transmit data.

Physical topology
Physical topology refers to the physical layout or arrangement of components on the network. Examples
of physical topologies include star, bus, ring, mesh and tree/hierarchical topology.

Star topology
In star topology, all devices are connected to a central hub. Nodes communicate across the network by
passing data through the hub. When the hub receives data from a transmitting computer, it broadcasts
the message to all the other nodes on the network. Until recently, the star topology was found mostly in
minicomputer and mainframe environments. The topology consists typically of a system of terminals or
personal computers, each connected to a central server.

The advantages of star topology include:

1. It allows centralisation of key networking resources like concentrators and servers.

2. It gives the network administrator a focal point for network management. When something goes
wrong with the network, the administrator can troubleshoot it from one place, usually a wiring closet,
but possibly from a remote management terminal.
3. Star networks are easy to configure.

27
The disadvantages of star topology include:

1. The star-based network is costly because it requires one complete cable per computer. Each
workstation is connected to the central concentrator by its own dedicated line. In some star-based
network technologies this line is coaxial cable that runs from an active hub to a workstation.
2. If the central hub fails, the entire network will be down.
3. Installing is time consuming because each node forms a segment of its own.

Bus topology
All devices are connected to a central cable called the bus or backbone as shown in Figure 1.26. The
sharing of the transmission media (or bus) has several problems. Most importantly, it means that the
cable can carry only one message at a time and each workstation on the network must be capable of
knowing when it can and cannot transmit using this shared medium.

A terminator is attached to each end of the cable to avoid signals from bouncing back and forth on the
cable causing signal distortion. As the data passes along the cable, each station checks whether the data
is addressed to it. If the address matches the machines address, it receives the data otherwise it rejects it.
The network addresses of computers on a network are called the medium access control (MAC) address.

The advantages of the bus topology are:

1. It is easy to install.

2. It is less costly. Does not require a complete cable length per computer.
The disadvantages of bus topology are:
1. A cable break in any section brings down the whole networks.

2. Troubleshooting a cable fault is difficult because the fault could be anywhere on the cable.

3. The bus topology limits the number of computers that can be connected to the cable because each
computer is listening to the cable in order to transmit. This means that an increase in the number of
computers results in an increased collision as machines compete for transmission.

28
Ring topology
In a ring topology, all devices are connected to one another in the shape of a closed loop each station is
responsible for regenerating and retransmitting signals around the network to its neighbour. A token is
used to exchange data from one station to another. A token can be viewed as an envelop or a bag where
data is placed for transmission and carried around the network.

The advantages of ring topology are:

1. They use a short length cable.
2. Ring topology is simple to install.
The disadvantages of ring topology are:

1. Modification may be difficult because adding or removing a device can disrupt the entire network.
2. Troubleshooting can be difficult.
3. One device or media breakdown may affect the entire network.
However, this is not the case with IBM token ring where a device called Multi Station Access Unit
(MSA U) is used for station bypass in the event a station fails.

Mesh topology
This is the most common type of topology used in wide area network where there are many paths
between different locations. Devices are connected with many redundant interconnections between the
nodes. In a true mesh topology every node has a connection to every other node in the network. This is
a hybrid topology. Groups of star-configured networks are connected to a linear bus backbone

29
Practical exercise

Setting up a peer-to-peer local area network

This practical activity is a step by step guide on how to set up a simple local area network. The
following are some of the requirements you need.
Hardware requirements
1. A computer running on any version of Microsoft Windows especially Windows 9x / 2000 / ME /
Windows XP.
2. Network Interface card. Some computers may have it already installed onboard so that you do not
have to purchase one.
3. A hub or a switch.
4. Transmission media preferably unshielded twisted pair category 5. 5. RJ45 connectors.
Tools
1. Crimping tool
2. Cable tester
3. Screw drivers.

30
Installing a network card
The network interface card acts as the physical interface or connection between the computer and a
properly terminated transmission cable. As mentioned earlier, some motherboards come with on-board
network interface cards hence you may not need to plug in a separate add-on card.
To physically install an add-on card:
1. Disconnect the computer from the power source.

2. Open the system unit and identify an empty expansion slot on the motherboard.

3. Insert the card and screw it into place. Some little force may be needed to push the card into place
squarely. Make sure that all the conductor points of the card sink into the expansion slot. Avoid
touching the golden conductor points and chips on the card with your bare hands.

NB: Some cards are slotted into Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) slots while others are designed
for Peripheral Components Interconnect (PCI) slots. Make sure you install in the right slot and then
screw into place.

4. Replace the casing then connect the computer to the power supply and boot it up. If you are using
Microsoft Windows 9x and above, the computer will detect the new hardware because of the plug and
play feature found in the operating system. It may install the protocols and device software needed for
the proper operation of the network interface card automatically! If there is a problem of the card being
detected, you may have to configure the card manually using software on a disk that comes with the
card.
Installing the drivers manually

I. Click tart, Settings then, ControlPane1. In the Control Panel window double click the Network
/Network Connections icon. A dialog box will be displayed. (In some Windows versions you may have
to double click the Network and Dial-up Connections icon found in the control panel then double-click
the local area connection icon.)

2. Click the configure button.

3. Click adapter/drivers and then click ADD. Follow the on screen instructions.
Adding protocols
1. Make sure the Network dialog box is open.
2. Click ADD then protocol
3. Click Microsoft, select TCP/IP and NetBEUI from the protocol list then ok
4. Click Apply
Identifying your computer in a workgroup
A workgroup is a collection of computers that are on the same network. To specify your computer and
the name of the workgroup:

31
1. If you are using Windows 9x, click the identification tab from the Network dialog box. If you are
using Windows Me, 2000 or XP. Identification (Computer Name) tab is located in system properties
dialog box. Right click My computer, click Properties then click the computer name tab.
2. Type your computer name and the workgroup name. The computer name you give must be unique.

Configuring transport control protocol/internet protocol (TCP/IP)

In order to communicate with other computers, you need to install and configure a protocol. In our case
let us use TCP/IP. To configure TCP/IP,

1. Select the TCP/IP Ethernet adapter from the list titled The following network components are
installed/ This connection uses the following items.
2. Click the properties button then the Specify the IP address option,
3. Type in the IP address box an address such as 192.168.00.001. Each computer should have a unique
IP address. Figure 1.32 shows a TCPI IP properties dialog box in Microsoft Windows XP.
4. Specify the subnet mask. Subnet masks are values that allow the router to distinguish the network ID
from host ID portions of the IP address. If the IP address is examined by the subnet mask and found to
be identical, the message is destined to a host on the same network otherwise it is routed to another
network. Typically, subnet masks use the format 255 .x.x.x. In our case let us use a subnet mask such as
255.255.255.0.
5. Click APPLY then Ok The computer will prompt you to restart in order for the changes to be
effected.
6. Restart the computer
Media preparation and connection
In this practical, we are going to use twisted pair cabling technique because it has become almost the
default method. This type of media uses a connector known as RJ45 to terminate the cable. RJ45 is
attached to a UTP cable using crimping tool. To attach an RJ45 connector to a UTP cable, proceed as
follows:
1. Cut a piece of cable of suitable length approximately 3 metres.
2. Strip off approximately a dimension centimeter of the cable sheath on both ends to expose the inner
pairs.
3. Untwist the pairs.
4. Using the wiring diagram, place the wires in the correct order and trim the edges to make them even.
Key
1. Green striped 2. Green
3. Orange striped 4. Blue
5. Blue striped 6. Orange
7. Brown striped 8. Brown

32
5. Insert the wires into the RJ45 connector; plug it in their correct order and then push it into the
crimping tool.
6. Squeeze the handles of the tool to make sure the wires are pierced and held tightly in the connector.
7. Repeat steps 5 and 6 at the other end of the cable. Your cable should now be terminated on both ends
8. You can then test the media for continuity and correct termination using the cable tester.
Connecting the computers to the hub/switch
It is now time to connect the computers together through the hub. To connect the computers:
1. Connect one end of the cable to the RJ45 port of the network card and the other end to one port in the
hub. If the hub is powered, a LED will indicate the connection. Repeat all this process for all other
computers that you wish to connect on the network.
2. To see if the networking is successful, right click the Network Neighborhood/ My Network Places on
the desktop. If all the connected computers in the same workgroup can "see" one another then you have
succeeded setting up a peer-to-peer network.
3. if not, you may decide to test the connection using the PING command. For example if you have two
computers with the IP addresses 192.168.001.001 and 192.168.001. 028. To test the connection between
the two, proceed as follows:
(a) From the START, menu of the computer with IP address
192.168.001. 001, choose the RUN menu and type the command
PING 192.168.001. 028.
(b) Click, 0K.A connection failure will be displayed on the screen
Sharing network resources
If you have successfully installed the network, you can then start enjoying the benefits of networking by
enabling resource sharing. For example if you are using Windows XP, you can share resources by
enabling sharing and security as follows:
1. Open Windows Explorer.
2. From the explorer window, right click the drive folder or file you wish to share with others on the
network then select sharing and security.
3. Click the Sharing tab then enable "share this folder".
4. Type in the share name and set other options as required.
5. Click 0.K.
Network security
Network security is like the security measures we implement in our homes. You do the best you can to
protect yourself from intruders. Likewise in networking you should try to protect your data and
information from intruders. In networking there are several ways of enforcing security one of them is
share level and the other is the user level security.

33
Share level security
Share level security is a sample network security used in peer to peer networks. The user can decide
which resources to give for sharing. Most desktop operating system such as Window 9X provide such
kind of security.

User-level security
User level security model is used on server based networks. A network administrator assigns accounts
to users. This means that each user is provided with a unique name and password which he or she can
use to access network resources. For more on user level security, read documentations on operating
system such as Microsoft Windows NT 4.0/2000/2003, UNIX, Novell Netware, Linux Fedora etc.

34
APPLICATION AREAS OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
(ICT)
Chapter outline
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Application areas of information and communication technology
2.3 Field work report
Introduction
Computers play an important role in every aspect of our society today. Hardly does a day pass without
one coming across a computer system that is used in offering services that were initially done manually.
In this chapter, we shall look at how computers have been applied in the contemporary society to add
value to the information systems of various organizations. An information system is a collection of
specific human and machine efforts required to support the decision making process, data processing,
information output and presentation.

Application areas of information and communication technology

Information and communication technology (lCT) has been applied in various areas such as in the
development of financial systems, retail systems, reservation systems, educational systems,
communication systems, industrial systems, scientific and research systems, library systems,
entertainment systems, transportation systems, home use, office expert systems, marketing, virtual
reality systems and law enforcement systems.

Financial systems
Financial systems enable organisations to manage their finances. They include:
1. Payroll systems.
2. Accounting systems.
3. Banking systems.

Payroll systems
The primary purpose of this system is to process the accurate information of employees including gross
pay, deductions and the net pay. Because money spent on human resource is one of the largest operating
expenses of a business, a payroll system is also designed to produce several analysis reports e.g. a
breakdown of payroll expenses against production/income of the company.

Accounting systems
Accounting systems are popular in business management. There are six key business accounting
activities/subsystems:
1. Customer order entry and billing

35
2. Inventory management
3. General ledger accounting
4. Accounts receivable
5. Accounts payable

Customer orders entry and billing

Customer orders entry and billing subsystem records incoming customer orders, authorises delivery of
items or services ordered and produces invoices for customers who do not pay in advance or on cash
basis.

Inventory management
Inventory management is used to keep track of the items in stock and help the management determine
which items to reorder. This helps the management to have enough stock at all times to meet the needs
of the customers.

General ledger accounting

General ledger accounting is used to keep track of how much a business makes and its worthiness by
summarising the financial transactions. It produces reports on income, sources of income, expenses, and
the net profit or loss earned. A summary report of these transactions is called a balance sheet and is
usually generated at the end of an accounting period.

Accounts receivable
Accounts receivable system keeps track or records of the amount owed by each customer. This helps the
management to make a follow-up by billing the customers for overdue payments.

Accounts payable
Accounts payable system keeps track of the amount the business owes others e.g. suppliers, tax
organisations, transport e.t.c. Hence, it helps the management to produce cheques for payment of these
amounts.

Banking systems
The banking industry was one of the earliest consumers of information and communication technology.
The computerised banking services include:
1. Processing customer transactions.
2. Cheque clearing and processing.
3. Electronic funds transfer.

36
Processing customer transactions
Computers are used in banks to carry out financial transactions such as recording deposits, withdrawals
and calculating interests on savings and loans. Such systems also generate reports on the current status
of accounts. In most banks, these transactions are entered via terminals, which are connected, to a
central computer for centralised processing. The tellers have revolutionised banking activity by offering
24 hour service to customers and more flexibility in cash deposits and withdrawals.

Cheque clearing and processing

Computerised cheques clearing and processing is made possible due to the special characters on
cheques printed using ink containing magnetic particles. The characters identify the bank in which the
cheque is drawn, the customer account number, the cheque number and the amount of the cheque.
Using a magnetic ink character reader, these details are automatically entered into a computer for
cheque processing. Manual processing used to take lots of time but with computer systems, millions of
cheques are processed every day hence improving efficiency in service delivery to customers.

Electronic funds transfer (EFT)

Electronic Funds Transfer (EFT) is the movement of money using information and communication
technology. When a cash dispenser is used, the amount withdrawn by a customer is deducted from
his/her account. Another example is when paying for goods and services using a credit card. Payment is
transferred electronically from the customers account to the recipients account.

Retail systems
Computers are becoming more and more popular in retail stores such as supermarkets, distributor
outlets etc. Computers are used in such stores for:
1. Stock control
2. Transactions handling at the electronic point of sale terminals (EPOS)

Stock control
A computerised stock control system enables a user to manage his/her stock more efficiently. This
system is used to track what is in stock and what needs reordering so as to reduce the risk of under
stocking or overstocking. Overstocking ties up valuable space and capital that could have been used for
other valuable items. On the other hand under stocking causes customer dissatisfaction.
37
Transactions handling at the electronic point of sale terminals
An electronic point- of -sale (EPOS) is a computer terminal used in retail stores to input and output data
at the point where sales are transacted e.g. at the supermarket checkout counter. An EPOS terminal has
all facilities of a normal cash register, but with additional direct data capture devices, e.g. bar code
reader, card reader, a monitor and a receipt printer. In such retail stores, goods are identified by means
of bar codes. For each item, a record is stored in secondary storage medium containing: the item
number, item name or description, quantity in stock and the price.
Transactions at the point of sale terminal may involve the following steps:
1. The bar code reader (wand) is passed over the items bar code. The bar code is automatically
converted to the item number, e.g. 2160, which is read to the computer.
2. Using this number, the computer searches for the item with a corresponding number in the products
database.
3. Once the record is found, its description and price lookup file is used for processing the sale.
The advantages of electronic point of sales terminal systems are:
1. Correct prices are used at the checkout counter.
2. Faster since the attendant does not have to enter details manually.

Reservation systems
Reservation systems are distributed networked systems that are used mainly to make bookings in areas
such as airlines, hotels, car-rental, theatres etc. Bookings are made from a remote terminal connected to
a centralised computer database. To access the database, a customer makes enquiries via the remote
terminal connected to the central computer.
For example to make airline booking enquiries such as finding out the seats reservation a customer uses
a remote terminal in the nearest booking office. The response is immediately available to the customer
within a few seconds.
38
Such a computerised reservation system is referred to as online enquiry since an individual directly
requests for information through a terminal from a central computer and receives an immediate
response.

Educational systems
Initially most educational institutions used computers for administrative tasks such as compiling
examinational reports, writing memos and accounting purposes. Computers are playing an increasingly
important role in educational institutions in the following ways:
1. Computer aided instruction (CAI)
2. Computer aided learning (CAL)
3. Electronic learning (e-Learning)
4. Computer based simulation

Computer aided instruction (CAI)

Computer aided instruction refers to the use of a computer to learn, drill and practice particular
educational principles. For example when learning a new concept in foreign language such as Japanese,
the learner is presented with the explanation of the concept. The computer then presents questions from
which the learner is to select the correct answer.

Some CAI programs present learning content in form of educational games, which makes learning more
fun especially for young children. A good example is a typing tutor program. Figure 2.3 below is an
onscreen illustration of a sample typing tutor program that teaches a person to learn typing skills.

Computer aided learning (CAL)

Another educational technique that uses computers is computer aided learning. Unlike computer aided
instruction, which is meant to drill the learner, computer aided learning present’s educational materials
the way a teacher does in a classroom. For example, the program may pose a question and depending on
the learner's performance, it may present new content or revisit the topic.

39
In order to make learning effective, most computer aided learning programs have clear graphical
presentations such as video clips and voice for demonstrating or explaining difficult concepts.

Electronic learning (e-Learning)

In e-Learning, lessons and lectures are presented from a central site and the presentation is transmitted
to remote conference terminals or displayed on TV screens. The learner can also access learning
material on the internet, sit for online examinations and receive results the same way. Learners therefore
do not need to go physically to a college.

Computer based simulation

Computer based simulation refers to the science of representing the behavior of a real-life situation by
using computerised models. Simulation has become very popular in learning and training institutions.
For example, in distant or e-Learning, where a learner is not in physical contact with a trainer,
simulation software can be used to provide the learner with clear illustrations about a certain concept or
skill.
Simulation programs are mostly used in educational areas where practical skills have to be learnt like
training drivers, pilots, engineers etc. have to be instructed using a virtual environment.

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Communication systems
Communication refers to the distribution of information or data from one person or location to another.
Effective and efficient data communication is achieved by use of high-speed electronic devices such as
computers, cell-phones, radios and television. This integration of computerised electronic devices and
telecommunication infrastructure for the purpose of communication is referred to as information and
communication technology (lCT). Therefore ICT not only refers to computers but also all other devices
that are used for effective and efficient communication. Examples of communication systems are:
1. Facsmile (Fax).
2. Radio.
3. Television set.
4. Video conferencing.
5. Telecommuting.
6. Internet.
Facsmile (Fax)
A facsmile machine, in short a fax, is a telecommunication device used to send documents via telephone
lines. A document is placed in the machine, scanned and converted into analog form then transmitted
over the telephone line. The receiving fax machine converts the analog data into the original softcopy
and prints a hardcopy.
To send fax over the Internet, a special modem, called a fax modem is attached to the sending and
receiving computers. This eliminates the need for a stand alone fax machine.

Radio communication
Computers can be used in radio broadcasting stations to do the following:
1. Record and manage radio programmes meant for broadcasting.
2. Manage the radio transmission and track performance. Most transmissions equipment are
computerized for easy troubleshooting and operation.
3. Automate the running of the selected programmes.
4. Create slides, simulated objects and sound effects when preparing electronic and printed media
advertisements.

41
5. Download information from Internet that can be used in preparing programmes such as international
news.
Television sets
Television sets (TV) have become increasingly important in information and communication
technology because they are much more available at homes and many places than computers. Data or
information is transmitted via a TV channel the same way the channel is used to broadcast conversional
TV programs. The most common types of data transmitted via TV include: teletext (ceefax) and
videotex (view data).

Teletext
Teletext refers to a computerised service whereby news and other information are provided on
television screens to subscribers. A TV is configured using a special add-on card or adapter. The
subscriber can browse for information using a remote controlled device. However teletext is a one way
communication (simplex) which means that the subscriber cannot communicate back to the service
provider.

Videotex (view data)

Unlike teletext, videotex also known as view data is a two way communication service half duplex over
a telephone line or cable television channel. A subscriber can interact with the service provider database
and the information is displayed on a home TV screen. View data is used in reservation bookings,
ordering for goods and services as well as sending electronic mails.

Video conferencing
Video conferencing refers to the use of computers, a digital video camera, audio capturing equipment
and communication networks to enable people in different locations to see and talk to one another.
Each participant's computer is attached with a video camera (camcorder), speakers and a microphone.
With such devices and appropriate communication software, a person can participate in a virtual
conference room. In such a room, all participants can see each other on the computer screen as if they
were seated in a real conference room.

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Video conferencing communication is popular in TV broadcasting stations where a field reporter
interacts with newscasters. It is also popular in organisations where top managers in different
geographical locations hold meeting via the Internet or the organistions intranet.

Telecommuting
Telecommuting is a term used to refer to a situation where an employee works usually at home using a
computer connected to the workplace network. Telecommuting takes advantage of the growing
communication networks to reduce unnecessary travel to the place of work. This in turn translates to
reduced travel expenses and less stress due to commuting inconveniences such as traffic jams.

The Internet
The Internet has become one of the most popular means of information transfer and efficient
communication. Some of the services available on the Internet are:
1. World wide web (www).
2. Electronic mail (e-mail).

World wide web (www)

World wide web refers to a collection of web pages, which may be made up of text, images, animations,
sounds and video held on web servers. One can access the information using a computer or any other
communication device such as a mobile phone. However, for a mobile phone to be used to access the
Internet, it must have the wireless application protocol (WAP). A computer connected to the Internet or
a WAP-enabled mobile phone allows the user to access a wide range of information such as news,
entertainment, banking, reservations, business news, e-mails among others.

43
E-mail
This is a very fast and efficient means of sending and receiving messages, data, files or graphics. Once
you subscribe for Internet services through a service provider, you can send or receive e-mails to or
from anyone connected to the Internet using a computer or a WAP-enabled cellular phone.

Industrial system
The application of computer technology in industrial or manufacturing processes has become one of the
most effective methods of automated production. This has resulted in tremendous improvement in
productivity.
Industrial plants such as motor vehicle manufacturers, chemical plants, refineries and mining plants use
computer systems in a number of ways. Some include:
1. Computer aided design and manufacturing.
2. Simulation.
3. Process control.

Computer aided design/computer aided manufacturing

Computer aided design Computer aided manufacturing (CAD/CAM) is an integrated system that allows
products that have been designed using design application Software, to be transmitted into an automated
manufacturing system for the product to be manufactured as per the computer model. For example
design of motor vehicle brake pads involves designing the model using computer aided design software
then feeding it to an automated machine which engineers the required shape and dimensions as per the
specifications. One application of computer aided manufacturing is the use of robots to carry out
assembly line operations. A robot is a computer controlled device that emulates a human being in
carrying out operations that would otherwise be hazardous, repetitive and boring to a human being.
Such operations may include welding, lifting heavy objects; spray painting of vehicle bodies, removing
red-hot materials from furnaces etc.

Industrial simulation
Simulation allows some activities that would otherwise be expensive and dangerous in real life situation
to be put under test. For example, a car or plane crash test simulation is the use of a virtual model on the
computer screen that attempts to represent the real situation or object. This enables the manufacturers
identify the weaknesses of the real situation or object hence put the correct reinforcement to their
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designs. E.g. motor vehicle seat belts can be tested for their effectiveness in case of a car crash using a
computer model. The general name of using computer models in such circumstances is known as non
destructive testing (NDT).

Process control
Computerised process control refers to the use of a computer system to control an ongoing physical
process especially in manufacturing. Such process controls may include regulating temperature,
pressure, fluid flow etc. Computerised process control is mostly used in petroleum refineries, chemical
plants and other manufacturing companies to manage machine intensive processes.

Scientific and research systems

Computers have a wide variety of applications in science, research and technology. Some of which are:
1. Weather forecasting.
2. Medical research.
3. Military and space exploration science.
Weather forecasting
Modern weather forecasting techniques have been automated using computerised systems; hence
weather predictions are more accurate and reliable. Due to the large volume of data collected from
rainfall, air pressure, humidity, temperature, wind speed and cloud cover, computers help in analysing,
processing and predicting weather patterns using such data.
Another application of computers in weather forecasting is the use of geographical information system
(GIS) and the geographical positioning system (GPS). This system represents geographical data in
graphical form by positioning and superimposing it on the world map. Geographical information system
is used to represent data on weather patterns in a clearer and coherent manner on a world map.
Similarly, the path of storms can be accurately tracked and predicted. Such information is very
important for the aviation industry and many other sectors of the economy.

45
Medical research
In health sciences, health professionals use computer technology for diagnosis, keeping patients'
records, inventory control etc. Computers are now being used to control devices that help to care for the
handicapped such as the deaf, blind, bed ridden etc. In some health institutions, a more specialised
computer system referred to as an expert system may be in use. An expert system is an interactive
system that generates conclusions from captured data by comparing it with a set of rules held in a
database called a knowledge base. The system emulates the reasoning of a human expert in a narrow
field of specialisation. Expert systems have been developed to help medical professionals diagnose
illnesses more accurately in the absence of human experts.

Military and space exploration science

The dynamic growth in military, space science and exploration would not be a reality today were it not
for computer technology. Space exploration and military research bodies such as America's national
aeronautics and space administration (NASA) make extensive use of computer systems, for research,
design, development and control of unmanned spaceships, aeroplanes and missiles.

Geographical Positioning System (GPS) are being used in modern military

operations to perform surveillance, enemy position plotting and directing of
missiles to targets in precise manner.

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Library systems
Libraries use computerised systems for a number of tasks. Examples are:
1. Lending system
2. Inventory control system.
3. Cataloguing system.
Lending system
The library lending system manages the issuance and return of borrowed reading materials. Books,
magazines, journals, reports etc. are given unique identification numbers or codes. Once a member
borrows a book, his/her details are recorded. When the book is returned the borrower's record is updated
to reflect the new status.

Inventory control
This involves use of computers to manage stock, which includes checking for books currently in the
shelves and those on high demand for the purpose of adding more. Similarly, books that have become
obsolete can be retired to the archives.

Cataloguing
A catalogue is a collection of cards with information about each book or reference materials found in
the library. These cards may be kept in a drawer sorted in alphabetic order either by title or author
name. To enhance service delivery and efficiency, computerised cataloguing has replaced the manual
cards catalogue. This electronic catalogue is updated constantly when new reference materials are
acquired.

Entertainment systems
The advancement in multimedia technology has produced computers that can be used in recreational
and entertainment. Some application areas of computers in recreation and entertainment include:
1. Games
2. Music and video

Games

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Games have come a long way from the simple solitaire to modem simulated 3D games. Digital video
disks (DVDs) and three-dimensional (3D) multimedia games are now possible on personal computers.
There are computer games that simulate sports such as driving, war combat etc. such games gives the
player maximum pleasure in a virtual environment on the screen.

Although some games can be played using other accessories e.g. on the TV screen using a game
console, such games have been developed using computers.
Music and video
Video compact discs (VCD) and digital video discs (DVD) have become a common feature in the
entertainment industry.
In music industry, computers are used in recording, synthesizing, editing and adding special effects to
music.
In video industry, computers are used to produce highly simulated and animated movies, generate
scenes and actors. Some movies use a lot of computer generated images that make the movie
interesting.
Transportation systems
Computers play an increasingly important role in transportation industry in areas such as:
1. Automobile traffic control
2. Air traffic control

Automobile traffic control

In busy towns where there are round about and road junctions, you will mostly find traffic control
lights. These lights control both human and motor vehicle traffic using the three lighting system i.e.
green, red and amber. These lights are either controlled using a small clock switch or a computer
system. The clock switches the lights at regular intervals. However, some clock controllers are
intelligent enough to vary the frequency of light change according to traffic direction and volume during
rush hours. Computerised traffic light systems have sensor pads laid underneath the road which detect
the pattern of the traffic flow. The collected data is sent to a computer system which detects and
analyses the traffic flow and builds up a simulated image of the actual scene. Control signals can then
be output to the traffic lights or motorists through their receiver devices to vary the light timings or
redirect traffic to less busy roads.

Air traffic control

Computers are used to monitor air traffic movement, take off and landing of crafts. This has helped
minimise human control errors and mistakes I that could result from human controlled systems. The
computer technology used to direct aircrafts to follow the shortest path between two locations is known
as geographical positioning system (GPS).

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Shipping control
Computers are widely used to control and guide the paths taken by spaceships and water vessels as they
travel to distant lands. The geographical positioning system is also used in shipping control.
Home use
Because microcomputers are nowadays affordable, most people are using computers at home for
preparing domestic budgets, entertainment, research and teaching children on educational concepts.
Office expert systems
This is an information system usually developed and installed in the office of a human expert or
knowledge worker. A knowledge worker is a person in any field who is formally trained to apply a
specific set of knowledge in his work. Such as a system is capable of simulating the decision making
process and intelligent problem solution just like a human expert. It also has a set of rules that help it to
make conclusions when some parameters are entered.
Marketing
Without proper marketing, a business cannot survive in a competitive environment; hence computers
are being used in a number of ways to enhance marketing. These include:
1. Electronic commerce or e-business
2. Electronic presentations
3. Advertising
Electronic commerce/e-business
E-commerce is a new way of doing business where the transactions are carried out electronically
without physical interaction between the seller and buyer. For example a customer may decide to buy an
item through the Internet by visiting the supplier's web site, selecting the item and placing it in a virtual
shopping tray. The website tracks the whole session as the customer chooses various items and
calculates the total bill. Payment is then made through a cheque, credit card or through electronic funds
transfer. Once the payment is made, the item is shipped to the customer.
This method of trade has enabled people to do business without much movement hence saving money
and time.
Electronic presentation
Using computers, marketing agents can create exciting presentations concerning the products of a
business and present them to the audience using presentation software. Electronic presentation adds
value to traditional marketing techniques because they are attractive.
Advertising
Using simulation, presentation and animation software, it is possible to design catchy advert materials
and video clips. Such materials can then be displayed on billboards, broadcasted over a television or
placed on the Internet.

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Virtual or artificial reality
The term virtual reality (VR) or artificial reality refers to a condition in which a person becomes
psychologically immersed in an artificial environment generated by a computer system. Other terms
used instead of virtual reality are cyberspace, virtual worlds and virtual environment. To achieve this
effect, the following interactive sensory equipment are used:

1. Head mounted display/headgear

2. Gloves
3. Body suit
4. Virtual reality software
Head mounted display (HMD)/headgear
A headgear is made up of two tiny display screens and sound systems that channel images and sound
from the source to the eyes and ears thus presenting a stereo three dimensional sound effect in the
virtual world. The wearer of the headgear is able to look around in the virtual environment.

A boom is an alternative to the often-uncomfortable head gear. Screen, optical and sound systems are
housed in a box. The user looks into the box through the two screens to see the virtual world.

Gloves

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Gloves worn on the hands allow the user to navigate through the virtual world and interact with virtual
objects. The gloves have sensors that collect data about the movement of the hands and relay the data
into the system. They give the wearer a sense of touch in the virtual world.

Body suit
A body suit, worn during virtual reality session is made up of conductor wires wound in a rubber suit.
The wires sense the body movement and relay the data into the virtual reality system which in turn
adjusts the position of the user in the virtual reality world.

Virtual reality software

Virtual reality software such as body electric gives the wearer of the sensory devices an interactive
virtual sensory experience that makes him/her feel as if he/she is in a real world. The software is
responsible for simulation of all the aspects of the virtual reality world.
Application of virtual reality
Virtual reality is used to represent any three dimensional object or ideas that are either real or abstract.
Real objects include buildings, landscapes, underwater shipwrecks, spacecrafts, human anatomy,
sculptures, crime scene reconstruction, solar system etc. For example, a house can be simulated before
the actual building is physically set up. A client can be allowed to virtually move through the house,
pull drawers and touch objects all in a computer generated environment
Other applications of virtual reality include entertainment, training in areas such as medicine, military,
equipment operations, education, design evaluation, prototyping, simulation and assembly of sequences,
assistance to the handicapped etc.

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Law enforcement systems
Today, crime has become very sophisticated hence very difficult to deal with. Since immediate and
accurate information is very crucial in crime detection, biometric analysis using computers is becoming
a preferred tool in this area. Biometric analysis refers to the study, measurement and analysis of human
biological characteristics. Biometric devices attached to a computer are used to identify people by
recognising one or more specific attributes such as fingerprints, voice, lips, facial features like iris
colour etc. Some of the devices that can be used here are video cameras and biometric scanners.

Field work report

Visit one of the information and communication technology (ICT) application areas discussed in this
chapter and write a detailed report of about five pages on the use of computers in the area. The report
should include the following:
1. Title page
2. Table of contents
3. Introduction
4. A detailed description of information and communication technology implementation in the area of
field work study
5. Conclusion

52
IMPACT OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT) ON
SOCI ETY

Chapter outline
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Issues resulting from the use of information and communication technology
3.3 Evolution of computer systems
Introduction
This era of information and communication technology (ICT) continues to influence our lifestyle both
positively and negatively. This chapter seeks to explain some of the issues that result from the use of
ICT in the society.

Issues resulting from the use of ICT

The use of ICT offers a different set of opportunities and challenges in our society. Some of the effects
of ICT in our society are:
1. Effects on employment.
2. Effects on automated production.
3. Issues of workers' health.
4. Cultural effects.
5. Breakthroughs in ICT.

Effects on employment

The introductions of computers in the workplace have resulted in creation of new jobs, replacement of
computer illiterate workers and displacement of jobs that were formerly manual.

Job creation
ICT has introduced new employment opportunities that never existed before. The use of computers in
financial institutions, reservation systems, educational institutions, communications etc. has created new
job titles such as computer operators, programmers, network administrators, information technology or
infof?1ation science managers, database administrators, software developers, system analysts etc.

Job replacement
Since the introduction of ICT in workplaces, some clerical and repetitive tasks that required a large
number of employees have been made redundant. Computer illiterate people have been replaced with
those who have the desired computer skills. The question in the mind of workers and managers is
whether computers will in future take over all the work currently being done manually by human
workers.
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Displacement
Unlike in replacement where an employee may lose the job, in displacement an employee is moved to
another place or department where computer skills are not required. For example, a clerk may end up
being an office messenger if computers are introduced at the workplace and such a person is not willing
to acquire new skills of using the computerised system.
However, to avoid losing competent employees, most employers organise in-service training for their
employees on regular basis in order to help them keep up with the rapid changes in ICT.

Automated production
A number of manufacturing industries such as vehicle assembly plants, oil refineries and food
processing companies are using computers to automate their processes with an aim of increasing
production. Computer controlled robots and assembly lines are a common feature in manufacturing
industries.

The advantages of using automated production are:

1. Increased efficiency due to the balancing of workload and production capacity.

2. Improved customer service. Adequate and high quality goods are produced in time.
3. Efficient utilisation of resources such as raw materials, personnel and equipment hence less
operating expenses are incurred.
However, automated production has its disadvantages too. These are:
1. High initial cost of setting up 1an automated system. For example, the cost of buying one industrial
robot is high compared to employing human resource.
2. Automated production may lead to unemployment in some areas that are labour intensive. For
example, what would have been done by thirty people may be done by one person using a machine.

54
Issues of workers' health
The use of information and communication technology (ICT) and computers has some effect on our
health. Some of the negative effects of ICT on our health include repetitive strain injuries, eye strain
and headaches, electromagnetic emissions and environmental issues.
Repetitive strain injuries (RSI)
These are injuries resulting from wrist, hand, arm and muscle strain, tendonitis and neck strains due to
forced repetitive movement e.g. when entering data using the keyboard. The cure for repetitive strain
injuries is resting, sitting in a relaxed position and changing typing techniques.
Eye strain and headaches
Since computer users have their eyes at cross range with the monitor, there is danger of developing
what is called computer vision syndrome (CYS). The syndrome is characterised by eye strain,
headaches, double vision and other problems caused by the improper use of the monitors. The solution
to this problem is to use monitors with good resolution and fitted with an antiglare screen that filters
excess light. A computer user at all times must adjust the brightness of the screen to the intensity that is
comfortable to the eyes.
Electromagnetic emissions
Electromagnetic field emissions are waves of electrical and magnetic energy that are emitted by current
carrying conductors. Computer users are advised to use low emission devices in order to avoid exposing
themselves to excess emissions.
Environment issues
Some of the environmental effects of information and communication technology include energy
consumption and radiation, pollution, paper consumption and disposal.
Energy consumption and radiation
Initially computers consumed a lot of energy thereby generating a lot of heat and emitting
electromagnetic radiations. However in recent years, the Environmental Protection agency (EPA)
launched energy star policy to encourage minimal use of power by electronic devices. Electronic
devices have to be energy star compliant to be recognised under this policy. You can tell whether your
computer complies to EPA if it displays the star during boot up

55
Environmental pollution
Information technology has also contributed to environmental pollution. For example, huge garbage
dumps of dead computer parts, printers, ink toner cartridges, monitors and other computer accessories
are disposed in landfills hence causing environmental pollution. There has been concern on the disposal
of Nickel - Cadmium laptop batteries that contain toxic cadmium which when buried in a landfill can
leak into underground water tables and catchments areas.

Cultural effects
The rapid growth of information technology does not only provide us with different ways of working,
playing and thinking but also presents challenges to our moral and cultural values. It is the moral
standards that help in guiding human behavior. Information and communication technology has
changed the way we talk, affected our privacy, human rights and integrity. For example Internet users
are exposed to a form of communication called flaming. Flaming is writing on-line messages that use
derogatory, obscene or of dirty language. Also through the Internet, one can view pornographic
materials that affect moral values negatively. These free flows of immoral information have negatively
influenced the behaviour of both the young and old in the society.
Computer related crimes such as hacking, eavesdropping, piracy are on the increase. This has been
accelerated by the free for all Internets. Therefore, a lot has to be done to improve on privacy and
security of information.
To some extent, people with eroded integrity have used computers as a tool to accomplish their vices.
Take for example where a person would use a computer to forge certificates, passport and other
documents. This means that the person is cheating and therefore his/her moral integrity has been
compromised.
However, ICT has its advantages too especially where it has been used as a campaign platform against
diseases like AIDS and drug abuse.

Breakthroughs in information and communication technology

As explained in the previous chapter, there has been a lot of breakthroughs in the fields of health care,
education, communication, research, commerce, art and design, entertainment, transport since the
inception of ICT . These breakthroughs have greatly changed our lifestyles such that it is hard to
imagine how life would be today if information and communication technology is to be withdrawn.

Evolution of computer systems

The rapid evolution of computers and information technology has a lot of promise. It has always been
fashionable for scholars and technologists to look out into the future and to try and predict the events of
tomorrow. Future trends in information and communication technology will be characterised by:
1. Rapid evolution in computer hardware and software.

56
2. Artificial intelligence.
3. Expanded information superhighway.

Rapid evolution in computer hardware and software

Since the introduction of computers in the business world in the 1950s, a lot of
technological improvements have been made both in hardware and software. The silicon revolution has
seen rapid increase in microprocessor speeds and capabilities due to advanced research in the semi-
conductor industry. Future trends will see reduction in size and cost of components but increase in
capability. The capacity of computer memory is becoming larger and larger with reduced physical size
and cost. Microprocessors of a thumb's size can now execute instructions in a trillionth of a second
hence leading to emergence of smaller but smart devices.
Artificial intelligence (AI)
Artificial intelligence can be defined as a branch of computer science that is concerned with the
development of machines that emulate humanlike qualities such as learning, reasoning, communicating,
seeing and hearing. The idea of artificial intelligence developed from a need to develop computer
programs that would even challenge human beings in playing games such as chess and scrabble!
Computer scientists and engineers are still working hard and carrying out intensive research with the
aim of coming up with smarter computers which can almost simulate human thinking and learning,
instead of relying on static programmed instructions.
However artificial intelligence is still in its infancy stage and scientists are still working hard to make it
a reality in the near future.
There are four main application areas of artificial intelligence namely:
1. Expert systems.
2. Natural language processing.
3. Artificial neural networks.
4. Robotics/perception systems.
Expert systems
This is software designed to make a computer operate at the level of a human expert in a specific
narrow area of specialisation. Such software simulates the reasoning process of experts in certain well
defined areas such as medical diagnosis, financial forecasting etc. An expert system consists of three
components namely:
Knowledge base: This is the expert system's database of knowledge about a particular subject. It
contains relevant facts, beliefs, assumptions and procedures for solving a particular problem.
Inference engine: This is the software that controls the search for knowledge in the knowledge base and
produces conclusions. It takes the problem posed by the user and seeks to analyse it in order to arrive at
a conclusion.
User interface: This is the display screen that enables the user interact with the system.

57
An example of an expert system is MYCIN developed at Stanford University, USA. MYCIN is used in
diagnosis of blood and meningitis infections. Another application area of expert systems is in predicting
mineral deposits in a particular geographical area by analysing composition of soil samples.
Natural language processing
Natural languages are ordinary human languages such as Kiswahili, English, French etc. The problem
of natural languages is that they are ambiguous and may be interpreted differently by different people.
For example the word 'sack' has two meanings i.e. "a type of bag" and "the act of dismissing a worker
from gainful employment". Computer languages on the other hand are clearly defined.

Natural language processing is aimed at coming up with programming languages that would make
computers recognise and understand natural languages, whether spoken or written. Currently there are
voice recognition input devices and voice synthesisers are available but are limited to just a few
vocabularies. However, before using them, the computer program must be trained to recognise the voice
and the pronunciation of words by the user.
Artificial neural networks
The artificial neural network is the use of electronic devices and software to emulate the neurological
structure of the human brain. The idea is to try and emulate the cognitive learning process of the human
brain and how it recognises patterns. The human brain works by receiving signals from special sensory
cells called neurons. When the neurons receive information, they either excite the cell to send a signal
to the brain or not. Artificial neurodes in artificial networks work in similar manner by perceiving
environmental stimuli and hence deciding whether to pass it on to the system or not.
The essential attributes of artificial neural networks are:

1. The neurodes can be trained to distinguish between what constitutes a signal and what does not.

2. They are capable of recognising patterns in large amount of data that are too complex for the human
brain. From these patterns, they can make predictions and point out anomalies. For example, in banking
the pattern of credit card usage can be tracked over time to try and generalise spending patterns of
individual card owners. In case of loss or theft, the bank can notice the change of spending pattern and
conclude that the card is in the wrong hands, hence take appropriate security measures even before loss
of the card is reported.
Robotics
A robot is a computer controlled device that emulates a human being in carrying out tasks that would
otherwise be dangerous and difficult. Although robots are being used in workplaces research is going on
in order to come up with robots that will incorporate perception systems.
Perception systems are sensing devices that emulate the five common senses of a human being i.e. sight,
hearing, touch, smell and taste. Such devices would operate under the control of a microprocessor. This
development will give robots artificial senses. Such artificial senses include feeling the shape of an

58
object, listening to ultrasound; detecting smell of a leaking gas or chemicals tasting food is quality and
seeing using two miniature video cameras
Expanded information superhighway
Expanded information superhighway involves the integration of cabled and wireless technologies for
the purpose of data and information transmission. In line with advancement in the other areas of
information and communication technology, there is vast increase in throughput of various transmission
media like fiber optic and wireless technologies. Scientists have demonstrated a fiber optic cable whose
diameter is the size of a single strand of hair which is capable of carrying a trillion bit per second

Internet is growing tremendously causing what is generally referred to as a growth of the information
superhighway to digital explosion or hurricane.

59
CAREER OPPORTUNITIES IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

Chapter outline

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Description of career opportunities in information and communication technology
4.3 Further educational opportunities in information and communication technology

Introduction

The era of computers and automated information and communication technology has brought both
blessings and disappointments in the workplace. Some people have acquired very well paying jobs
while others have lost theirs. For example an ordinary typist has been replaced by one who can create
documents using a computer. Many new jobs have been created in areas like banking, manufacturing,
educational institutions, communication and other service industries.

Description of career opportunities in the field of ICT

Information and communication technology (ICT) has created new job titles such as computer
operators, computer technicians, system analysts, computer programmers, software engineers, computer
engineers, information systems manager, data base administrator, computer trainer, website
administrators, computer graphics designers and network administrators. This section explains some
responsibilities of these professionals who are generally called information technology workers.

Computer operator
Some of the responsibilities of a computer operator include:
1. Entering data into the computer for processing.
2. Keeping up-to-date records (log files) of all information processing activities.

Computer technician
Given that computers require regular maintenance, upgrading as well as emergency repairs, demand for
computer technicians continues to grow as more and more people computerise their workplaces and
homes.
Some of the responsibilities of a computer technician are:
1. Troubleshooting computer hardware and software related problems.
2. Assembling and upgrading computers and their components.
3. Ensuring that all computer related accessories such as printers, modems, storage media and devices
are in good working condition.

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4. In developed countries, technicians help hardware engineers in designing and creating some
computer components such as storage devices, motherboards etc.
System analyst
This is a person who is responsible for analysing a company's needs or problems then designs and
develops a computer based information system. A good system analyst is one who has at least the
following attributes:
1. Good problem solving skills and creativity i.e. must have wide experience in solving problems.
2. Good communication skills: The analyst must be able to communicate clearly and precisely both in
writing and in speech. He/she must be able to talk to different groups of people e.g. managers,
operators, attendant and general public.
3. Must have business knowledge: The analyst must clearly understand the environment for which the
system is being developed.
4. Technical knowledge: A system analyst must be well trained in relevant areas of computer science
such as hardware, software and programming knowledge.
Some of the responsibilities of a system analyst include:
(a) Reviewing the current manual or redundant information system and making recommendations on
how to replace it with a more efficient one.
(b) Working with programmers to construct and test the system.
(c) Coordinating training for users of the new system.
Computer programmer
Large organisations such as insurance companies, banks, manufacturing firms and government agencies
hire programmers to work together with system analysts in order to:
1. Write in-house application programs or system programs.
2. Customise commercial application packages to suite the organisations needs.
3. Test, debug, install and maintain programs developed or customised for the organization.
Software engineer
A software engineer is one who is skilled in software development and technical operation of computer
hardware. Some of the responsibilities of the software engineers are:
1. Developing system and application software.
2. Developing user and technical documentations for the new software.
3. Maintaining and updating the software to meet day-to-day requirements while overcoming
challenges.
Computer engineer
Computer and electronic engineers are coming up with new and more efficient technologies in
information and communication technology almost daily. Since computers are electronic devices,
hardware designers must be good in electronic engineering in order to be able to:

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1. Design and develop computer components such as storage devices, motherboards and other electronic
components.
2. Determine the electrical power requirement of each computer component:
3. Re-engineer computer components to enhance its functionality and efficiency.
4. Design and develop engineering and manufacturing computer controlled devices such as robots.

Information system manager

The information system manager controls, plans, staffs, schedules and monitors all the activities of the
ICT department in the organization. Using computerised management information system (MIS), the
manager can test the impact that an alternative course of action might have on the business.
Other responsibilities of an information system manager include:
1. making sure that all tasks in the IT department are done correctly and on time in order to support
business planning, control and decision making processes.
2. Preparing budgets for the department.
3. Keeping the department inventory records up-to-date.
4. Managing the human resource within the department.
Database administrator (DBA)
The major purpose of computerising organisations or institutions is to store data in an organised way for
easy access, retrieval and update. The organization requires a person who should be responsible for
updating records in an information system database. For this reason, a database administrator is
responsible for:
1. Designing and developing database applications for the organization.
2. Setting up security measures needed to control access to data and information.
3. Keeping the database up-to-date by adding new records, modifying or deleting unnecessary records.
Computer trainer
Due to the dynamic nature of computers and information technology, there is a high demand for
qualified ICT trainers. Some of the responsibilities of an ICT trainer are:
1. Training people on how to use a computer and various application programs.
2. Developing training reference materials.
3. Guide learners on how to acquire knowledge through carrying out research.
4. Advising the learners on the best career opportunities in the broad field of ICT.
5. Preparing learners for ICT examinations.

Web administrator/webmaster
Internet is one of the areas of information and communication technology that has drawn the interest of
most people. Thus people are able to exchange messages, search for information and do business
through the Internet.
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Business organisations, educational institutions and individuals put information on the Internet by
developing websites. Most organisations hire the services of a web developer who is given the role of
the company's web administrator also referred to as a webmaster. A web administrator is responsible
for:
1. Developing and testing websites.
2. Maintaining, updating and modifying information on the web site to meet new demands by the users.
3. Monitoring the access and use of internet connection by enforcing security measures.
4. Downloading information needed by an organization or institution from Internet websites.

Computer graphics designers and typesetters

In publishing skilled graphics designers and typesetters are required in order to design graphical objects
and professional publications. Such people may get employed in publishing houses to typeset books,
newspapers and magazines.
Self-employment
Self employment can be achieved by using computers or other ICT devices such as mobile phones to
start bureau services, Internet services, consultancy services and computer hardware and software
vendor business.
Network administrator
A network administrator is a specialist whose responsibilities are to:
1. Set-up a computer network.
2. Maintain and enforce security measures on the network.
3. Monitor the use of network resources.
4. Maintain and troubleshoot network related problems.
Computer sales representatives
Computer sales representative should have good knowledge in information and communication
technology. This would helps them to analyse customer needs and advice them accordingly. A good
computer salesman needs to be self confident, persuasive and proficient in business communication.
Further educational opportunities in ICT
Most computer related educational opportunities offered at post-secondary level are relatively new and
dynamic in nature compared to other disciplines. It is therefore difficult for most institutions that offer
ICT courses to update their ICT curricula in order to accommodate these rapid changes. These changes
also make it difficult for aspiring ICT professionals to identify the best career opportunities and training
institutions. ICT courses are offered in the following tertiary institutions:
1. Universities
2. Polytechnics
3. Colleges

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Universities
A university is considered as the highest institution in formal education. In most countries, universities
are categorised into two major groups’ namely public and private universities.
Public universities
Public universities are established by the state through the award of a charter and are run by a state
appointed management team. However, current trends in educational management point to the fact that
even state universities should be allowed to operate in an autonomous manner. Admission to such a
university is controlled by either the state or a recognised body. However, most universities in
developed countries do their own independent admissions.

Private universities
Private universities are self-sponsored institutions set up by individuals, churches or any other
organization. Such universities are privately run and students' enrolment depends on whether the student
is capable of sponsoring himself/herself. However, for these universities to operate they must be
registered or accredited by the commission of higher education or any other quality assurance body that
is recognised worldwide. Accreditation leads to public acceptance and confirmation evidenced by the
grant of charters by the state or accrediting bodies.
Universities are authorised to offer approved diploma, undergraduate and postgraduate programmes.
Some of the ICT related degree programs offered at university level courses include Bachelor of
Science in computer science, Bachelor of Information Technology/Systems, Bachelor of Science in
Computer Engineering etc.

Research institutions
Although for a long time universities have been considered as centers for research and excellence, other
specialised research institutions that concentrate on narrow fields of study such as computer or ICT
technology, agriculture and space science exist. There is a lot of research being undertaken in the field
of computing such as artificial intelligence. It is possible to enroll in such institutions as a research
trainee.
Polytechnics
These are institutions of higher learning that mostly offer diploma and certificate courses' in technical
fields such as ICT, mechanics, food production etc. A polytechnic may also be accredited by a
university or the state to offer degree programmes.
Some of the ICT courses offered at polytechnic level are diploma and certificate in computer studies,
computer repair and assembly, computer operator, management information system etc.
Colleges
Just like the polytechnics, middle level colleges offer diploma, certificate and craft courses in many
disciplines such as technical, ICT, teacher training, business management etc.

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Most public and private colleges are now offering ICT related courses both at certificate and diploma
level.
The most important consideration to make before you join a college to pursue an ICT course is:
1. Whether it offers ICT courses recognised both locally and internationally.
2. The cost of training with such an institution.

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