PHY 111 FOUNDATION PHYSICS 1

Lecture 8: Fluid Statics and

Fluid Dynamics

Aiyomba Ainao
 Topic Outlines

• Phases of Matter
• Solid: Stress and Strain
• Density and Specific Gravity
• Pressure in Fluids
• Atmospheric Pressure and Gauge Pressure
• Pascal’s Principle
• Buoyancy and Archimedes’ Principle
• Fluids in Motion; Flow Rate and the Equation of Continuity
• Bernoulli’s Equation
• Applications of Bernoulli’s Principle: from Torricelli to Airplanes,
Baseballs, and TIA
States of Matter

 Solid
 Liquid
 Gas
 Plasmas
Solids: Stress and Strain
Stress = Measure of force felt by material

Force
Stress =
Area
• SI units are Pascals, 1 Pa = 1 N/m2
(same as pressure)
Solids: Stress and Strain
F
Strain = Measure of deformation

L L
Strain = A
L
• dimensionless
L
 Young’s Modulus (Tension)
F
tensile stress

Y=
F
A  L
A
L L  tensile strain

• Measure of stiffness
• Tensile refers to tension
Example

A 8.0x104 kg monkey swings from a

320 m cable from the building. If the
3.0 cm diameter cable is made of steel
(Y=1.8x1011 Pa), by how much will the
cable stretch?

1.97 m
Shear
Modulus Sheer Stress

S=
F
A 
x h Sheer Strain
Bulk Modulus
F P Change in Pressure
B= A =
V
V  
V
V
Volume Strain

B=Y 3
 Example

A large solid steel (Y=1.8x1011 Pa) block (L 5 m, W=4 m,

H=3 m) is submerged in the Mariana Trench where the
pressure is 7.5x107 Pa.

a) By what percentage does the length change?

-0.041 %

b) What are the changes in the length, width and height?

-2.08 mm, -1.67 mm, -1.25 mm

c) By what percentage does the volume change?

-0.125%
Solids and Liquids

 Solids have Young’s, Bulk, and Shear moduli

 Liquids have only bulk moduli
 Ultimate Strength

• Maximum F/A before fracture or

crumbling

• Different for compression and

tension
 Density and Specific Gravity

The density ρ of an object is its mass per unit volume:

The SI unit for density is kg/m3. Density is also sometimes

given in g/cm3; to convert g/cm3 to kg/m3, multiply by 1000.
Water at 4°C has a density of 1 g/cm3 = 1000 kg/m3.

The specific gravity (relative density) of a substance is the

ratio of its density to that of water.
 Mass Density

mass m
Density = ; r=
Wood volume V

Lead: 11,300 kg/m3

2 kg, 4000 cm3 Wood: 500 kg/m3

4000 cm3
177 cm3
Lead 45.2 kg Lead
2 kg

Same volume Same mass

Example: The density of steel is 7800 kg/m3.
What is the volume of a 4 kg block of steel?

m m 4 kg
r= ; V= =
V r 7800 kg/m3
4 kg
V = 5.13 x 10-4 m3

What is the mass if the volume is 0.046 m3?

m = rV = (7800 kg/m3 )(0.046 m3 );
m = 359 kg
 Relative Density (Specific Gravity)
The relative density rr of a material is the ratio of its
density to the density of water (1000 kg/m3).
rx
rr =
1000 kg/m3

Examples:
Steel (7800 kg/m3) rr = 7.80
Brass (8700 kg/m3) rr = 8.70
Wood (500 kg/m3) rr = 0.500
 Pressure
Pressure is the ratio of a force F to the area A
over which it is applied:
Force F
Pressure = ; P=
Area A
A = 2 cm2
F (1.5 kg)(9.8 m/s 2 )
P= =
1.5 kg
A 2 x 10-4 m 2

P = 73,500 N/m2
 The Unit of Pressure (Pascal):

A pressure of one pascal (1 Pa) is defined as a

force of one newton (1 N) applied to an area of
one square meter (1 m2).

Pascal: 1 Pa = 1 N/m 2

In the previous example the pressure was

73,500 N/m2. This should be expressed as:

P = 73,500 Pa
 Fluid Pressure
A liquid or gas cannot sustain a shearing stress - it is
only restrained by a boundary. Thus, it will exert a
force against and perpendicular to that boundary.

• The force F exerted by a

fluid on the walls of its
container always acts
perpendicular to the walls. Water flow
shows  F
 Fluid Pressure
Fluid exerts forces in many directions. Try to submerse
a rubber ball in water to see that an upward force acts
on the float.

• Fluids exert pressure in F

all directions.
Pressure & Pascal’s Principle

“Pressure applied to any

part of an enclosed fluid
is transmitted
undimished to every
point of the fluid and to
the walls of the
container”
F
P= Each face feels same force
A
 Pressure vs. Depth in
Fluid
Pressure = force/area
mg
P= ; m = rV ; V = Ah h
A
rVg r Ahg
P= = Area mg
A A
• Pressure at any point in a Fluid Pressure:
fluid is directly proportional
to the density of the fluid
and to the depth in the fluid.
P = rgh
Independence of Shape and Area.

Water seeks its own level,

indicating that fluid pressure
is independent of area and
shape of its container.

• At any depth h below the surface of the water

in any column, the pressure P is the same.
The shape and area are not factors.
Pressure does not depend on volume,
only on height (depth).
“Water seeks its own level”
Pressure of fluid depends
on depth.
Pressure increases
with depth, so the
speed of water leaking
from the bottom hole is
larger than that from the
higher ones.
Properties of Fluid Pressure

 The forces exerted by a fluid on the walls of

its container are always perpendicular.
 The fluid pressure is directly proportional to
the depth of the fluid and to its density.
 At any particular depth, the fluid pressure is
the same in all directions.
 Fluid pressure is independent of the shape or
area of its container.
Example. A diver is located 20 m below
the surface of a lake (r = 1000 kg/m3).
What is the pressure due to the water?

The difference in pressure

from the top of the lake to
r = 1000 kg/m3
the diver is: h
P = rgh
h = 20 m; g = 9.8 m/s2

P = (1000 kg/m3 )(9.8 m/s 2 )(20 m)

P = 196 kPa
 Atmospheric Pressure
One way to measure atmospheric
pressure is to fill a test tube with P=0

mercury, then invert it into a atm atm

bowl of mercury. h

Density of Hg = 13,600 kg/m3 Mercury

Patm = rgh h = 0.760 m

Patm = (13,600 kg/m3)(9.8 m/s2)(0.760 m)

Patm = 101,300 Pa
 Absolute Pressure
1 atm = 101.3 kPa

Absolute Pressure: The sum of the

pressure due to a fluid and the pressure
P = 196 kPa
due to atmosphere.
Gauge Pressure: The difference between
h
the absolute pressure and the pressure due
to the atmosphere:

Absolute Pressure = Gauge Pressure + 1 atm

Pabs = 196 kPa + 101.3 kPa

P = 196 kPa
1 atm = 101.3 kPa Pabs = 297 kPa
 Atmospheric Pressure and Gauge Pressure

At sea level the atmospheric pressure is about

; this is called one atmosphere
(atm).
Another unit of pressure is the bar:

Standard atmospheric pressure is just over 1 bar.

This pressure does not crush us, as our cells

maintain an internal pressure that balances it.
 Atmospheric Pressure and Gauge Pressure

 Most pressure gauges measure the pressure

above the atmospheric pressure – this is
called the gauge pressure.
 The absolute pressure is the sum of the
atmospheric pressure and the gauge
pressure.
Pressure and
Depth
w is weight
w = Mg = rVg = r Ahg
Sum forces to zero,
PA  P0 A  w = 0

Factor A
P = P0  r gh
 Pascal’s Law
Pascal’s Law: An external pressure applied
to an enclosed fluid is transmitted uniformly
throughout the volume of the liquid.

Pressure in = Pressure out

Fin Ain Fout Aout

Fin Fout
=
Ain Aout
 Transmitting force Hydraulic press

F1 F2
P= =
A1 A2
An applied force F1 can
be “amplified”:

A2
F2 = F1
A1 Examples: hydraulic
brakes, forklifts, car lifts,
etc.
Example. The smaller and larger pistons of a
hydraulic press have diameters of 4 cm and 12
cm. What input force is required to lift a 4000 N
weight with the output piston?

Fin Fout Fout Ain

= ; Fin = Fin A Fout Aout
Ain Aout Aout in
t
D
R= ; Area =  R 2
2
(4000 N)( )(2 cm) 2
Fin =
 (6 cm) 2
Rin= 2 cm; R = 6 cm

F = 444 N
 Archimedes’ Principle
Any object completely or partially submerged in a
fluid is buoyed up by a force whose magnitude is equal
to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object.

2 lb The buoyant force is

due to the displaced
2 lb fluid. The block
material doesn’t
matter.
• An object that is completely or partially submerged in a fluid experiences an upward buoyant force equal to the weight
of the fluid displaced.
 Calculating Buoyant Force
The buoyant force FB is due to
the difference of pressure P
between the top and bottom Area FB h1
surfaces of the submerged block.
FB mg h2
P = = P2  P1 ; FB = A( P2  P1 )
A
FB = A( P2  P1 ) = A( r f gh2  r f gh1 )
Buoyant Force:
FB = ( r f g ) A(h2  h1 ); V f = A(h2  h1 )
FB = rf gVf
Vf is volume of fluid displaced.
Example: A 2-kg brass block is attached to a
string and submerged underwater. Find the
buoyant force and the tension in the rope.
All forces are balanced:
FB + T = mg FB = rwgVw
mb mb 2 kg
rb = ; Vb = =
Vb rb 8700 kg/m3

Vb = Vw = 2.30 x 10-4 m3
T
Fb = (1000 kg/m3)(9.8 m/s2)(2.3 x 10-4 m3) FB = rgV
Force
FB = 2.25 N diagram
mg
 (Cont.): A 2-kg brass block is attached to a
string and submerged underwater. Now find
the the tension in the rope.
FB = 2.25 N

FB + T = mg T = mg - FB
T = (2 kg)(9.8 m/s2) - 2.25 N

T = 19.6 N - 2.25 N
T
FB = rgV
T = 17.3 N
Force
This force is sometimes referred to diagram
as the apparent weight. mg
 Floating objects:
When an object floats, partially submerged, the buoyant
force exactly balances the weight of the object.

FB FB = rf gVf mx g = rxVx g

rf gVf = rxVx g

mg Floating Objects: rf Vf = rxVx

If Vf is volume of displaced Relative Density:

water Vwd, the relative density r x Vwd
rr = =
of an object x is given by: r w Vx
Example: A student floats in a salt lake with one-
third of his body above the surface. If the density
of his body is 970 kg/m3, what is the density of the
lake water?

Assume the student’s volume is 3 m3.

Vs = 3 m3; Vwd = 2 m3; rs = 970 kg/m3

rw Vwd = rsVs 1/3

r s Vwd 2 m3 3r s 2/3
= = 3
; rw =
r w Vs 3 m 2

3r s 3(970 kg/m3 )
rw = = rw = 1460 kg/m3
2 2
 Problem Solving Strategy
1. Draw a figure. Identify givens and what is to be
found. Use consistent units for P, V, A, and r.
2. Use absolute pressure Pabs unless problem
involves a difference of pressure P.
3. The difference in pressure P is determined by the
density and depth of the fluid:

m F
P2  P1 = r gh; r = ; P =
V A
 Problem Strategy (Cont.)

4. Archimedes’ Principle: A submerged or floating

object experiences an buoyant force equal to the
weight of the displaced fluid:

FB = m f g = r f gV f
5. Remember: m, r and V refer to the displaced
fluid. The buoyant force has nothing to do with
the mass or density of the object in the fluid. (If
the object is completely submerged, then its
volume is equal to that of the fluid displaced.)
 Problem Strategy (Cont.)
6. For a floating object, FB is FB
equal to the weight of that
object; i.e., the weight of the
object is equal to the weight of mg
the displaced fluid:

mx g = m f g or r xVx = r f V f
 Summary
mass m rx
Density = ; r= rr =
1000 kg/m3
volume V

Force F Fluid Pressure:

Pressure = ; P= P = rgh
Area A

Pascal: 1 Pa = 1 N/m 2
Summary (Cont.)

Fin Fout
Pascal’s =
Ain Aout
Law:

Buoyant Force:
Archimedes’
FB = rf gVf
Principle:
 Fluids in Motion

All fluids are assumed

in this treatment to
exhibit streamline flow.

• Streamline flow is the motion of a fluid in

which every particle in the fluid follows the
same path past a particular point as that
followed by previous particles.
 Ideal Fluids

• Laminar Flow > No turbulence

• Non-viscous > No friction between
fluid layers
• Incompressible > Density is same
everywhere
 Assumptions for Fluid
Flow:
• All fluids move with streamline flow.
• The fluids are incompressible.
• There is no internal friction.

Streamline flow Turbulent flow

 Fluids in Motion; Flow Rate and the Equation of
Continuity
If the flow of a fluid is smooth, it is called streamline or laminar flow (a).
Above a certain speed, the flow becomes turbulent (b). Turbulent flow
has eddies; the viscosity of the fluid is much greater when eddies are
present.
 Turbulence

 Fluid elements move along irregular paths

 Sets in for high velocity gradients (small
pipes)
 Rate of Flow
The rate of flow R is defined as the volume V of a fluid that
passes a certain cross-section A per unit of time t.

The volume V of fluid is given by the

product of area A and vt: V = Avt
A vt

Volume = A(vt)

Avt
R= = vA Rate of flow = velocity x area
t
Fluids in Motion; Flow Rate and the Equation of
Continuity
 Constant Rate of Flow
For an incompressible, frictionless fluid, the velocity
increases when the cross-section decreases:

R = v1 A1 = v2 A2 2 2
v d = v2 d
1 1 2

A1
R = A1v1 = A2v2
A2
v2
v1
v2
Example: Water flows through a rubber hose 2
cm in diameter at a velocity of 4 m/s. What must
be the diameter of the nozzle in order that the
water emerge at 16 m/s?

The area is proportional to

the square of diameter, so:

v1d12 = v2 d 22
2 2
2 vd (4 m/s)(2 cm)
1 1
d =
2 = d2 = 0.894 cm
v2 (20 cm) 2
 Example (Cont.): Water flows through a
rubber hose 2 cm in diameter at a velocity
of 4 m/s. What is the rate of flow in
m3/min?
R = v1 A1 = v2 A2
 d12
R = v1 A1 ; A1 =
4
2 2
 d1 (4 m/s) (0.02 m)
R1 = v1 = R1 = 0.00126 m3/s
4 4
m3  1 min 
R1 = 0.00126   R1 = 0.0754 m3/min
min  60 s 
 Problem Strategy for Rate of Flow:

 Read, draw, and label given information.

 The rate of flow R is volume per unit time.
 When cross-section changes, R is
constant.
R = v1 A1 = v2 A2

• Be sure to use consistent units for area and

velocity.
 Problem Strategy (Continued):

 Since the area A of a pipe is proportional to its

diameter d, a more useful equation is:

2 2
v d = v2 d
1 1 2

• The units of area, velocity, or diameter chosen

for one section of pipe must be consistent with
those used for any other section of pipe.
 The Venturi Meter

A C
B
The higher velocity in the constriction B causes a
difference of pressure between points A and B.

PA - PB = rgh
Demonstrations of the Venturi Principle

Examples of the Venturi Effect

The increase in air velocity produces a

difference of pressure that exerts the forces
shown.
Bernoulli’s Equation

A fluid can also change its

height. By looking at the
work done as it moves, we
find:

This is Bernoulli’s equation.

One thing it tells us is that
as the speed goes up, the
pressure goes down.
Work in Moving a
A2 Note
Volume of Fluid P2 differences in
pressure P
A1 and area A
F2
P1 P2 = ; F2 = P2 A2
A2
A2
Volume
F1 V P2 , F2
P1 = ; F1 = PA
1 1
A1
A1 h
P1
F1
Fluid is raised
to a height h.
 Work on a Fluid (Cont.)

v2 F2 = P2A2
Net work done on
fluid is sum of work
v1 A2 done by input force
F1 = P1A1
A1 s2 h2 Fi less the work done
by resisting force F2,
h1 s1 as shown in figure.

Net Work = P1V - P2V = (P1 - P2) V

 Conservation of Energy
v2 F2 = P2A2
Kinetic Energy K:
2 2
K = ½ mv  ½ mv
2 1 v1 A2
F1 = P1A1
Potential Energy U: A1 s2 h2
U = mgh2  mgh1 h1 s1

Net Work = K + U also Net Work = (P1 - P2)V

2 2
( P1  P2 )V = (½ mv  ½ mv )  (mgh2  mgh2 )
2 1
 Conservation of Energy

( P1  P2 )V = (½ mv22  ½ mv12 )  (mgh2  mgh2 )

Divide by V, recall that density r = m/V, then simplify:
2 2
P1  r gh1  ½ r v = P2  r gh2  ½ r v
1 2

v2
Bernoulli’s Theorem: v1
P1  r gh1  ½ r v12 = Const h2
h1
Bernoulli’s Theorem (Horizontal Pipe):

P1  r gh1  ½ r v12 = P2  r gh2  ½ r v22

Horizontal Pipe (h1 = h2) v1 h v2

r
P1  P2 = ½ r v22  ½ r v12
h1 = h 2

Now, since the difference in pressure P = rgh,

Horizontal
Pipe
P = r gh = ½ r v22  ½ r v12
 Example: Water flowing at 4 m/s passes
through a Venturi tube as shown. If h = 12 cm,
what is the velocity of the water in the
constriction?
Bernoulli’s Equation (h1 = h2) h v2
r
2 2
P = r gh = ½ r v  ½ r v
2 1
v1 = 4 m/s h = 6 cm

Cancel r, then clear fractions: 2gh = v22 - v12

v2 = 2 gh  v12 = 2(9.8 m/s 2 )(0.12 m)  (4 m/s) 2

v2 = 4.28 m/s Note that density is not a factor.

Bernoulli’s Theorem for Fluids at Rest.

For many situations, the fluid remains at rest so that

v1 and v2 are zero. In such cases we have:
2 2
P1  r gh1  ½ r v = P2  r gh2  ½ r v
1 2

P1 - P2 = rgh2 - rgh1 P = rg(h2 - h1)

This is the same relation

r = 1000
seen earlier for finding the h kg/m3
pressure P at a given depth
h = (h2 - h1) in a fluid.
 Torricelli’s Theorem
When there is no change of pressure, P1 = P2.

P1  r gh1  ½ r v12 = P2  r gh2  ½ r v22

Consider right figure. If

surface v2  0 and P1= v2  0
P2 and v1 = v we have:
h2 h v = 2 gh
Torricelli’s theorem:
h1
v = 2 gh
 Torricelli’s Theorem:

Torricelli’s theorem:
v
v = 2 gh v
v
• Discharge velocity
increases with depth.
• Maximum range is in the middle.
• Holes equidistant above and below midpoint
will have same horizontal range.
Example: A dam springs a leak at a
point 20 m below the surface. What is
the emergent velocity?

Torricelli’s theorem:
v = 2 gh h
v = 2gh
Given: h = 20 m
g = 9.8 m/s2

v = 2(9.8 m/s 2 )(20 m)

v = 19.8 m/s2
Example: Bernoulli’s Principle
 Strategies for Bernoulli’s Equation:

• Read, draw, and label a rough sketch with givens.

• The height h of a fluid is from a common reference
point to the center of mass of the fluid.
• In Bernoulli’s equation, the density r is mass
density and the appropriate units are kg/m3.
• Write Bernoulli’s equation for the problem and
simplify by eliminating those factors that do not
change.

P1  r gh1  ½ r v12 = P2  r gh2  ½ r v22

 Strategies (Continued)

2 2
P1  r gh1  ½ r v = P2  r gh2  ½ r v
1 2

• For a stationary fluid, v1 = v2 and we have:

r = 1000
P = rg(h2 - h1) h kg/m3

• For a horizontal pipe, h1 = h2 and we obtain:

P1  P2 = ½ r v22  ½ r v12
 Strategies (Continued)

P1  r gh1  ½ r v12 = P2  r gh2  ½ r v22

• For no change in pressure, P1 = P2 and we have:

Torricelli’s Theorem

v = 2 gh
Example: Water flows through the pipe at the rate
of 30 L/s. The absolute pressure at point A is 200
kPa, and the point B is 8 m higher than point A.
The lower section of pipe has a diameter of 16 cm
and the upper section narrows to a diameter of 10
cm. Find the velocities of the stream at points A
and B.
R = 30 L/s = 0.030 m3/s B
R=30 L/s
D
A =  R2 ; R= 8m
2
AA = (0.08 m)2 = 0.0201 m3 A
AB = (0.05 m)2 = 0.00785 m3

R 0.030 m 3 /s R 0.030 m 3 /s
vA = = 2
= 1.49 m/s; v2 = = 2
= 3.82 m/s
AA 0.0201 m A2 0.00785 m

vA = 1.49 m/s vB = 3.82 m/s

 Example (Cont.): Next find the absolute
pressure at Point B.
B
Given: vA = 1.49 m/s R=30 L/s
vB = 3.82 m/s 8m
PA = 200 kPa
A
hB - h A = 8 m
Consider the height hA = 0 for reference purposes.
0
PA + rghA +½rvA2 = PB + rghB + ½rvB2
PB = PA + ½rvA2 - rghB - ½rvB2

PB = 200,000 Pa + 1113 Pa3 –78,400 Pa

2 – 7296 Pa
PB = 200,000 Pa + ½1000 kg/m )(1.49 m/s)
– (1000 kg/m3)(9.8 m/s2)(8 m) - ½1000 kg/m3)(3.82 m/s)2
PB = 115 kPa
 Summary
Streamline Fluid Flow in Pipe:
R = v1 A1 = v2 A2 v1d12 = v2 d 22

Fluid at Rest: Horizontal Pipe (h1 = h2)

PA - PB = rgh P1  P2 = ½ r v22  ½ r v12

Bernoulli’s Theorem: Torricelli’s theorem:

P1  r g h1  ½ r v 12 = C o n s ta n t v = 2 gh
 Summary: Bernoulli’s
Theorem
• Read, draw, and label a rough sketch with givens.
• The height h of a fluid is from a common reference point
to the center of mass of the fluid.
• In Bernoulli’s equation, the density r is mass density and
the appropriate units are kg/m3.
• Write Bernoulli’s equation for the problem and simplify
by eliminating those factors that do not change.

2 2
P1  r gh1  ½ r v = P2  r gh2  ½ r v
1 2
 Applications

Using Bernoulli’s principle, we find that the speed

of fluid coming from a spigot on an open tank is:

This is called
Torricelli’s
theorem.
 Applications

Lift on an airplane wing is due to the

different air speeds and pressures on the
two surfaces of the wing.
Applications

A sailboat can move

against the wind, using
the pressure differences
on each side of the sail,
and using the keel to
keep from going
sideways.
Applications

A ball’s path will curve

due to its spin, which
results in the air speeds
on the two sides of the
ball not being equal.
Applications

A person with
constricted arteries will
find that they may
experience a temporary
lack of blood to the
brain (TIA) as blood
speeds up to get past the
constriction, thereby
reducing the pressure.
 Applications

A venturi meter can be used to measure fluid

flow by measuring pressure differences.
 Applications
Air flow across the top helps smoke go up a chimney, and air
flow over multiple openings can provide the needed
circulation in underground burrows.
 Viscosity

 Friction between the

layers
 Pressure drop
required to force
water through pipes
(Poiselle’s Law)
 At high enough v/d,
turbulence sets in
v
F = A
d
 Flow in Tubes; Poiseuille’s Equation, Blood
Flow

The rate of flow in a fluid in a round tube depends

on the viscosity of the fluid, the pressure
difference, and the dimensions of the tube.
The volume flow rate is proportional to the
pressure difference, inversely proportional to the
length of the tube and to the pressure difference,
and proportional to the fourth power of the radius
of the tube.
 Flow in Tubes; Poiseuille’s Equation, Blood
Flow
This has consequences for blood flow – if the radius of
the artery is half what it should be, the pressure has to
increase by a factor of 16 to keep the same flow.
Usually the heart cannot work that hard, but blood
pressure goes up as it tries.
 Surface Tension and Capillarity

The surface of a liquid at rest is not perfectly flat; it curves

either up or down at the walls of the container. This is the
result of surface tension, which makes the surface behave
somewhat elastically.
 Surface Tension and Capillarity

Soap and detergents lower the surface tension of water. This

allows the water to penetrate materials more easily.

Water molecules are

more strongly attracted
to glass than they are to
each other; just the
opposite is true for
mercury.
 Surface Tension and Capillarity

If a narrow tube is placed in a fluid, the fluid will exhibit

capillarity.
 Diffusion
 Molecules move from region of high concentration to
region of low concentration
 Fick’s Law:
Mass  C2  C1 
Diffusion rate = = DA  
time  L

 D = diffusion
coefficient
Osmosis
Movement of water through a boundary while
denying passage to specific molecules, e.g. salts