Unit 1

Algebra
Course Outcome: Apply the concepts of algebra to solve engineering related problems.

Unit outcome:
a) Solve the given simple problem based on laws of logarithm.
b) Calculate the area of the given triangle by determinant method.
c) Solve given system of linear equations using matrix inversion method and by Cramer’s rule.
d) Obtain the proper and improper partial fraction for the given simple rational function.

Introduction: Algebra is a simple language, used to create mathematical models of real

world situations and to handle problems. The algebraic need of engineering and technology is
to solve simple engineering problems using algebra. Some of the main topics coming algebra
includes Logarithms, Determinants, Matrix and Partial fractions.

Logarithm

Significance of Logarithms: Logarithm is one of the best tools to simplify engineering

problems.
Content of Logarithms:
Definition:
If y = ax , a > 0, a  1, a  R, then x is called logarithm of y to the base a and it is written
as x = log𝑎 𝑦.
For example,
1) If 8 = 23 then 3 = log 2 8
2) If 34 = 81 then log 3 81 = 4
Note: i) ax = y is called Exponential form or Index form and
x = loga y is called Logarithmic form of the same expression.
ii) Logarithm of negative number and zero are not defined

LAWS OF LOGARITHM:
1. loga (m n) = loga m + loga n

m
2. loga   = loga m  loga n
n

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3. loga (m)n = n loga m
loga m
4. logn m =
loga n
Remark:
1. a0 =1  loga 1 = 0
2. a1= a  loga a = 1
loga y
3. a =y
Solved Examples:
Evaluate the following
a) log216
Solution: log 2 16
= log 2 24
= 4 log2 2
= 4(1)
=4
b) log 5 125

Solution: log 5 125

= log 5 53
= 3 log 5 5
= 3(1)
=3
log5 8
c) 25
log5 8 log5 8
Solution: 25 =[(5)2]
2 log5 8
=5
2
log5 8
=5
log 64 log y
=5 5 … (a a = y)
= 64
Simplify the following
a) log 2 14  log 2 7
Solution: log 2 14  log 2 7

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  14 
 log 2  
 7 
 log 2 2
=1
b) (log 3 4)  (log 4 81)
Solution: (log 3 4)  (log 4 81)
log 4 log 81
= 
log 3 log 4
log 81

log 3
log 34

log 3
log 3
 4
log 3
=4
2 4 8
c) log    log    log  
3 5  15 
2 4 8
Solution: log    log    log  
3 5  15 
2 4 8
= log     log  
3 5  15 
8 8
= log    log  
 15   15 
 8 15 
= log   
 15 8 
= log 1
=0
Find x if
i) log3 27 = x
Solution: log3 27 = x
3x = 27
3x = 33
x=3

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ii) log 3 ( x  6)  2
Solution: Given log 3 ( x  6)  2
 x  6  32
 x 96
 𝑥 =3
Exercises
1) Evaluate the following
1) log 2 32 2) log 10 1000 3) log 81 3
3
4) log 4 0.25 5) log 10 1000 6) log 3 243
7) log343 7
2) Simplify the following:
1) log 5  log 3  log 2

 9  15   35 
2) log    log    log  
 14   16   24 
 16   25   32 
3) 2 log    log    log  
 15   24   27 
log 4 64
4)
log 9 81

 225   25   64 
5) log    log    log  
 32   81   729 
log 7 25 log 5 8
6) 
log 7 5 log 5 2
450 25 64 32
7) log ( 32 )+log (128)+ log (25)+log(25)
145 3 54
8) log ( ) − 3 log (2)+log (29 )
8

3) Find x if :
1) log 2 ( x  3)  3 2) log 3 ( x  4)  4

3) log 3 ( x  5)  4 4) log 4 (3 x  5)  0

1
5) log 2  x 6) log 4 𝑥 = 2
1

2

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 Determinant
Significance: It is used to find area of triangle and solution of simultaneous equations used in
engineering field.
Content of the Determinant:
Definition: The arrangement of numbers in equal number of rows and columns enclosed
between two bars is called determinant.
It has a definite value.
Determinant of order 3:-
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3
𝑏3 | = 𝑎1 × |𝑏2 𝑏3 𝑏 𝑏3 𝑏 𝑏2
|𝐴| = |𝑏1 𝑏2 | − 𝑎2 × | 1 | + 𝑎3 × | 1 |
𝑐2 𝑐3 𝑐1 𝑐3 𝑐1 𝑐2
𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3
= 𝑎1 (𝑏2 𝑐3 − 𝑏3 𝑐2 ) − 𝑎2 (𝑏1 𝑐3 − 𝑐1 𝑏3 ) + 𝑎3 (𝑏1 𝑐2 − 𝑏2 𝑐1 )
Solved Examples
I.Evaluate the following by expansion: -
2 3 5
1) 1 4 2
3 1 6
Solution:
2 3 5
1 4 2= 24 2 31 2+ 51 4
  1 6 3 6 3 1
3 1 6
= 2(24  2)  3(6  6) + 5(1  12)
= 2(22)  3(0) + 5(  11) = 44  0  55
=  11
 3  5  1
2)  1 3 5 
 5 1 3 
Solution:
 3  5  1
1 3 5  = 33 5 ( 5) 1 5 1 1 3
  1 3  5 3  5 1
 5 1 3 
= 3(9  5) + 5(3  ( 25))  1(1  ( 15))
= 3(4) + 5(28)  1(16)
= 12 + 140  16 = 136

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Exercise
Evaluate the following determinant.

2 4 1 9 12 1 3 2 1
a) 1 0 4 b) 1 4 1 c) 3 1  2
5 1 3 1 5 3 3 2 3

1  1 1  1 0 6 6 9 12
d) 2 1  1 e)7 2 5 f)2 3 4 
1 1  3 3 4 6 5 9 13

Cramer's Rule:-
It is the method of solving simultaneous equations using determinants.
It is also called determinant method.
Suppose a1x + b1y + c1z = d1
a2x + b2y + c2z = d2
a3x + b3y + c3z = d3
are the simultaneous equations.
Dx Dy Dz
Then solution is x = , y = , z = , provided D  0.
D D D
a1 b1 c1 
D =a2 b2 c2 , a determinant of coefficients of x, y and z
a3 b3 c3 
d1 b1 c1 
Dx=d2 b2 c2 , a determinant obtained from D on replacing a1, a2, a3 by d1, d2, d3.
d3 b3 c3 
a1 d1 c1 
Dy=a2 d2 c2 ,a determinant obtained from D on replacing b1, b2, b3 by d1, d2, d3.
a3 d3 c3 
a1 b1 d1
Dz=a2 b2 d2,a determinant obtained from D on replacing c1, c2, c3 by d1, d2, d3.
a3 b3 d3
Note: Before applying Cramer’s rule, the constant terms in the equations are taken on the
right hand side of the equations.

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Solved Examples:-
1. Solve 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 6 ; 2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 4𝑧 = −2; 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 3𝑧 = −6
Solution: 𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 6 ;
2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 4𝑧 = −2;
𝑥 + 𝑦 − 3𝑧 = −6
1 1 1
∴ 𝐷 = |2 1 −4| = 1{−3 + 4} − 1{−6 + 4} + 1{2 − 1}
1 1 −3
= 1+2+1= 4
6 1 1
𝐷𝑥 = |−2 1 −4| = 6{−3 + 4} − 1{6 − 24} + 1{−2 + 6}
−6 1 −3
= 6 + 18 + 4 = 28
1 6 1
𝐷𝑦 = |2 −2 −4| = 1{6 − 24} − 6{−6 + 4} + 1{−12 + 2}
1 −6 −3
= −18 + 12 − 10 = −16
1 1 6
|
𝐷𝑧 = 2 1 −2| = 1{−6 + 2} − 1{−12 + 2} + 6{2 − 1}
1 1 −6
= −4 + 10 + 6 = 12
𝐷𝑥 28
∴ 𝑥 = = =7 ;
𝐷 4
𝐷𝑦 −16
𝑦= = = −4 ;
𝐷 4
𝐷𝑧 12
𝑧= = =3
𝐷 4

2) Following equations are obtained as a result of an experiment. ; p 1 + p2 – p3 = 0; 2p1 + p2

+ p3 = 26; p2 + p3 = 14 find p1 , p2 and p3 by using Cramer's rule.
Solution: Given equation can be written as
p1 + p2 – p3 = 0
2p1 + p2 + p3 = 26
0p1 + p2 + p3 = 14

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 1 1 –1
Here D = 2 1 1 
0 1 1 
= 1(1 – 1) –1(2 – 0) – 1(2 – 0)
= 0–2–2
D = –4
 0 1 –1
Dp = 26 1 1 
14 1 1 
1

= 0(1 – 1) –1(26 – 14) – 1(26 – 14)

= – 12 – 12
Dp1 = – 24

1 0 –1
Dp = 2 26 1 
0 14 1 
2

= 1(26 – 14) –0(2 – 0) – 1(28 – 0)

= 12 – 28
Dp = – 16
2

1 1 0 
Dp =2 1 26
0 1 14
3

= 1(14 – 26) – 1(28 – 0) + 0(2 – 0)

= – 12 – 28
Dp3 = – 40

Dp1 –24
∴ p1 = = =6
D –4
Dp2 –16
p2 = = =4
D –4
Dp – 40
3
p3 = = = 10
D –4

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3) The voltage in an electric circuit is related by following equations:
V1 + V2 + V3 = 9, V1  V2 + V3 = 3, V1 + V2  V3 = 1. Find V1, V2 and V3 using
Cramer’s rule.
Solution: The equations are
V1 + V2 + V3 = 9
V1  V2 + V3 = 3
V1 + V2  V3 = 1
1 1 1 

Here D = 1  1 1 

1 1  1
= 1(1  1)  1( 1  1) + 1(1  ( 1))
=0+2+2
D = 4
9 1 1 
DV1 = 3  1 1 
1 1 1 
= 9(1  1)  1( 3  1) + 1(3  ( 1))
=0+4+4
DV1 = 8

1 9 1 
DV2 = 1 3 1 
1 1  1
= 1( 3  1)  9( 1  1) + 1(1  3)
=  4 + 18  2
DV2 = 12

1 1 9
DV3 = 1  1 3
1 1 1
= 1( 1  3)  1(1  3) + 9(1  ( 1))
=  4 + 2 + 18
DV3 = 16

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 DV1 8
 V1 = = =2
D 4
DV2 12
V2 = = =3
D 4
DV3 16
V3 = = =4
D 4
Exercise
Solve the following equations using Cramer’s rule
1. 𝑥+𝑦+𝑧 =6; 2𝑥 + 𝑦 – 2𝑧 = − 2 ; 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 3𝑧 + 6 = 0
2. x + z = 0, 2x + 3y + 3z = 5, x + 3y = 5
3. 3x + 3y  z = 11, 2x  y + 2z = 9, 4x + 3y + 2z = 25
4. 8x + 3y = 2, y + 3z = 7, 2x + 2z = 8
5. x + y + z = 3, x  y + z = 1, x + y  2z = 0
6. x  y  2z = 1, 2x + 3y + 4z = 4, 3x  2y  6z = 5
7. Following equation are obtained as a result of experiment
2I1 − I2 + I3 = 0 , 4𝐼1 − 𝐼3 = 2 , 2𝐼2 + 𝐼3 = 2. Find the values of 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 and 𝐼3 by
Cramer’s rule
8. 4𝑟 − 7𝑠 + 2𝑡 = 4 ; 3𝑟 + 6𝑠 − 7𝑡 = 5; 2𝑟 + 4𝑠 − 2𝑡 = −3
9. 2𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 = 5; 𝑥2 − 3𝑥3 + 2 = 0; 𝑥3 + 3𝑥1 = 4

Area of a triangle:
Area of a triangle whose vertices are (x1, y1), (x2,y2) and (x3, y3) is given by,
x1 y1 1
Area of (ABC) = x2 y2 1
1
2
x3 y3 1
Solved Examples: -
1) Find the area of triangle whose vertices are
( 8,  2), ( 4,  6) and ( 1, 5)
Solution:
x1 y1 1
Area of  = x2 y2 1
1
2
x3 y3 1

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 −8 −2 1
1
Area of = |−4 −6 1|
2
−1 5 1
1
= [ 8( 6  5) + 2( 4  ( 1)) + 1( 20  6)]
2
1
= [88  6  26]
2
= 28 Sq. units
2) Find the area of triangle with vertices (4, 7), (1, 3) and (5, 1).
Solution:
x1 y1 1 
Area of  ABC = x2 y2 1 
1
2
x3 y3 1 

1
4 7 1
Area of ABC = 1 3 1
2
5 1 1
1
= [4(3  1)  7(1  5) + 1(1  15)]
2
1
= [8 + 28  14]
2
1
= [22]
2
= 11 Sq. units
Exercise:
1. Find the area of the triangle with vertices (3,1) , (-1,3) , (-3,-2)
2. Find the area of the triangle with vertices (3, 4) , (5,7) , (-2,-3)
3. Find the area of triangle with vertices A(2,1), B(1, 4) and C( 3, 2).
4. Find the area of the triangle whose are ( 1, 5), (3, 1) and (5, 7).
5. Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are (3, 1), ( 1, 3) and ( 3,  2).
6. Find the area of triangle whose vertices are (2, 3), (5, 7) and ( 3, 4)
7. Find the area of triangle ABC where, A ≡ (1, 2), B ≡ ( 6, 1) and C≡ (0, 8).
Matrices-
Significance of Matrices: Matrices can be used to compactly write and work with multiple
linear equations, referred as system of linear equations, simultaneously

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Definition:-
A set of 𝑚 × 𝑛 numbers arranged in a rectangular form of m rows & n columns enclosed
between a pair of square brackets is called a matrix of order 𝑚 × 𝑛 (read as m by n).
Matrices are generally denoted by capital alphabets & its elements are denoted by small
alphabets.
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑏11 ⋯ 𝑏1𝑛
𝑎
For e.g. 𝐴 = [ 21 𝑎 22 𝑎 23 ] ; 𝐵=[ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ]
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 3×3 𝑏𝑚1 ⋯ 𝑏𝑚𝑛 𝑚×𝑛
In short, 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑛 where
𝑖 = 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑠 1,2,3, … . , 𝑚 &
𝑗 = 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛𝑠 1,2,3, … . . , 𝑛.

Order of a matrix:-
The order of a matrix is defined as 𝑚 × 𝑛 if it contains m rows & n columns.
Examples:
1. 𝐴 = [2 3 −1] Order of A is 1 × 3
2 −3
2. 𝐵=[ 4 0 ] Order of B is 3 × 2
−1 −2
5 6 1]
3. 𝐶=[ Order of C is 2 × 3
0 2 9
8
4. 𝐷 = [ ] Order of D is 2 × 1
4

Types of matrices:-
1. Row matrix: Matrix having only one row is called row matrix.
For e.g. : 𝐴 = [2 3 −1].
2. Column matrix: Matrix having only one column is called column matrix.
8
For e.g. : 𝐷 = [ ].
4
3. Square matrix : Matrix having equal number of rows & columns is called square matrix
2 −1 0
For e.g. 𝐴 = 1 3 −4]
[
5 −3 4
Note: In matrix A, elements 2, 3, 4 are diagonal elements and remaining are non-diagonal
elements.
4. Diagonal matrix: A square matrix where all non-diagonal elements are zero is called a
2 0 0
diagonal matrix. For e.g. : 𝐷 = [0 3 0]
0 0 4

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 5. Scalar matrix: A diagonal matrix where all diagonal elements are equal is called a scalar
2 0 0
matrix. For e.g. : 𝐾 = [0 2 0]
0 0 2
6. Identity matrix OR Unit matrix: A scalar matrix where all diagonal elements are one
(unit) is called an identity matrix or unit matrix denoted by I.
1 0 0
1 0
For e.g. : 𝐼3 = [0 1 0] ; 𝐼2 = [ ]
0 1
0 0 1
7. Zero matrix: A matrix having all elements equal to zero is called zero matrix.
0 0
For e.g. : 𝐴 = [0 0 0]; 𝐵 = [ ]
0 0

Algebra of matrices:
1. Addition of matrices: If two matrices are of same order then A+B can be obtained by
adding the corresponding elements. Order of matrix 𝐴 + 𝐵 is same as that of A and B.
5 6 1] 4 2 3
For e.g. if 𝐴 = [ , 𝐵=[ ]
0 2 9 −3 1 −2
5+4 6+2 1+3 9 8 4
then 𝐴 + 𝐵 = [ ]=[ ]
0−3 2+1 9−2 −3 3 7
2. Subtraction of matrices: If two matrices are of same order then matrix
𝐴 − 𝐵 can be obtained by subtracting the corresponding elements. Order of matrix 𝐴 − 𝐵
is same as that of A and B.
5 6 1] 4 2 3
For e.g. if 𝐴 = [ , 𝐵=[ ]
0 2 9 −3 1 −2
5−4 6−2 1−3 1 4 −2
then 𝐴 − 𝐵 = [ ]=[ ]
0+3 2−1 9+2 3 1 11
3. Scalar Multiplication: If A is a matrix and ‘k’ is a scalar then the matrix ‘kA’ is obtained
by multiplying every element of the matrix A by ‘k’.
5 6 1] 25 30 5 ]
For e.g. if 𝐴 = [ 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 5𝐴 = [ where k=5
0 2 9 0 10 45

Solved examples:
2 −3 1 2
1. If 𝐴 = [ 4 0 ] , 𝐵 = [6 −1] find 2𝐴 + 3𝐵.
−1 −2 0 3
2 −3 1 2
Solution: 2𝐴 + 3𝐵 = 2 [ 4 0 ] + 3 [6 −1]
−1 −2 0 3
4 −6 3 6
=[ 8 0 ] + [18 −3]
−2 −4 0 9

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 4 + 3 −6 + 6
= [ 8 + 18 0 − 3 ]
−2 + 0 −4 + 9
7 0
= [ 26 −3]
−2 5
2 5 4  1 1 7
2. If A = 0 1 , B = 2  , C = 5 2 then find 5A  3B + 2C
 0
Solution: 5A  3B + 2C
2 5 4  1 1 7
=5 0 1  3 2  + 2 5 2
 0
10 25 12  3  2 14
=  0 5    6 +
 0  10 4 
10  12 + 2 25 + 3 + 14
= 
 0  6 + 10 50+4 
0 42
= 4 9 
3. Find the value of x and y satisfying the equation
1 𝑥 0 3 1 2 4 2 2
[ ]+[ ]=[ ]
𝑦 2 4 4 3 −2 6 5 2
1 𝑥 0 3 1 2 4 2 2
Solution: [ ]+[ ]=[ ]
𝑦 2 4 4 3 −2 6 5 2
1+3 𝑥+1 0+2 4 2 2
∴[ ]=[ ]
𝑦+4 2+3 4−2 6 5 2
4 𝑥+1 2 4 2 2
∴[ ]=[ ]
𝑦+4 5 2 6 5 2
By using equality of matrices, 𝑥 + 1 = 2 and 𝑦 + 4 = 6
∴𝑥=1 & 𝑦=2
2  1  3  2
4. If A = 4 ,B=  , find the matrix ‘X’ such that 2A + X = 3B
 3  1 4 
Solution: 2A + X = 3B
 X= 3B  2A
 3  2 2  1
 X= 3    2 4 
 1 4   3 
 9  6 4  2
=   
 3 12  8 6 
 9  4  6 + 2
=  
 3  8 12  6 
 5  4
X=  
 11 6 

2 5] 4 −1 1 7
5. If 𝐴 = [ ,𝐵 = [ ],𝐶 = [ ]
0 1 2 0 5 2

18 | P a g e
 Then prove that (𝐴 + 𝐵) + 𝐶 = 𝐴 + (𝐵 + 𝐶)
Solution: 𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆. = (𝐴 + 𝐵) + 𝐶
2 5] [4 −1] 1 7
=([ + )+[ ]
0 1 2 0 5 2
6 4 1 7
=[ ]+[ ]
2 1 5 2
7 11
=[ ]
7 3
𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆. = 𝐴 + (𝐵 + 𝐶 )
2 5] 4 −1 1 7
=[ +([ ]+[ ])
0 1 2 0 5 2
2 5] [5 6]
=[ +
0 1 7 2
7 11
=[ ]
7 3
∴ 𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆. = 𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆.
Exercise:
 5 3 2  1
1) If A =   and B = 3  , find 2A  3B
 1 1  2
 1 2 4 5   7 11
2) If X =   , Y = 1 ,Z=  . Show that 3X + Y = Z
 3 4   3  8 9 
2 3 1 3
3) If A = 4 7 , B = 4 6 , find 2A + 3B  4I

2  3 4 5  3  1
4) If A = 3  , B = 3  , C = 0  , find 3A + 4B  2C
 4   2  6
 1 2 1  1 0  1
5) If A =  ,B= ,C= 
 1 3 3  2 1  1
Verify that (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
x 2  5 2y + 5 6  15
6) If A =  ,B=
 
 and if 3A = B , find x and y

3 1 2y   9 3 6
3 2   1  1
1  1   2  , verify that A + B = B + A
7) If A =  ,B= 3 
0 4   4  2

Matrix multiplication:
The product of two matrices A and B is possible only if the number of
columns in A is equal to the number of rows in B.
Let A = [aij] be an m  n matrix
B = [bij] be an n  p matrix.

19 | P a g e
Order of A× B is m×p
Method of Multiplication of two matrices:
𝑅 𝑝 𝑞 𝑟
Let A= 1 [𝑎 𝑏 ] , 𝐵 = [𝑥 𝑦 𝑧]
𝑅2 𝑐 𝑑

𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3
𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑅1 𝐶2 𝑅1 𝐶3 ap + bx aq + by ar + bz
then 𝐴𝐵 = [ ]=[ ]
𝑅2 𝐶1 𝑅2 𝐶2 𝑅2 𝐶3 cp + dx cq + dy cr + dz
Note: 𝑅1 𝐶1 means multiplying the elements of first row of A with corresponding elements of
first column of B.
Note: In matrices, matrix multiplication is not commutative.
i.e. A × 𝐵 ≠ 𝐵 × 𝐴 in general

Solved examples:-
2  1
 3 4  2
1. If A   B  3 4  find matrix AB
2 1 0  0 2 
2  1
 3 4  2 3 4 
Solution : AB     
2 1 0  0 2 
(3)( 2)  (4)(3)  (2)(0) (3)( 1)  (4)( 4)  (2)( 2)
AB  
 (2)( 2)  (1)(3)  (0)(0) (2)( 1)  (1)( 4)  (0)( 2) 

6  12  0  3  16  4
 
 43 0  2 4 0 

18 9
AB  
 7 2

2 −1 0
2. If 𝐴 = [1 3 −4] 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐴2 − 3I.
5 −3 4
2 −1 0 2 −1 0
Solution : 𝐴2 = [1 3 −4] × [1 3 −4]
5 −3 4 5 −3 4
4−1+0 −2 − 3 + 0 0+4+0
= [ 2 + 3 − 20 −1 + 9 + 12 0 − 12 − 16]
10 − 3 + 20 −5 − 9 − 12 0 + 12 + 16

20 | P a g e
 3 −5 4
= [−15 20 −28]
27 −26 28
1 0 0 3 0 0
3𝐼 = 3 [0 1 0 ] = [0 3 0 ]
0 0 1 0 0 3
3 −5 4 3 0 0
2
∴ 𝐴 − 3I = [−15 20 −28] − [0 3 0]
27 −26 28 0 0 3
0 −5 4
∴ 𝐴2 − 3I = [−15 17 −28]
27 −26 25
3. Find x and y if
2 
 1 2 0  1 3  1   0  x
4
 2  = 
 2  1 3  2  3 4     y
 1
Solution:
2
 1 2 0 1 3  1   0  x
4    2 2  = 
 2  1 3   3 4     y
 1
2 
 4 8 0  2 6  2   0  x
 8   = 
   4 12 4  6 8     y
 1
2 
 4  2 8  6 0 + 2    0  x
   = 
 8  4  4 + 6 12  8    y
 1
 2 
2 2 2  0  x
4 2 4   = y
 1
4 + 0  2 x
 =
8 + 0  4 y
2 x
4 = y
x=2 and y =4

 1 3 2 3 0 2  1 x
4. Find x, y, z if  2 0 1 + 2 1 4 5  2 = y
      
 3 1 2 2 1 0  3  z 
Solution:
 1 3 2 6 0 4   1 x
 2 0 1 + 2 8 10  2 = y
 3 1 2 4 2     
0   3 z 

21 | P a g e
 1+6 3+0 2+4 1 x
[2 + 2 0 + 8 1 + 10] × [2] = y
3+4 1+2 2+0 3 z 
7 3 6  1 x
4 8 11 2 = y
     
7 3 2  3 z 
 7 + 6 + 18  x
4 + 16 + 33 = y
   
 7+6+6  z 
31 x
53 = y
   
19 z 
∴ x = 31
y = 53
z = 19

 2 4 4
5. If A  4 2 4 show that A2  8 A is scalar matrix
4 4 2
 2 4 4
Solution : A  4 2 4
4 4 2
 2 4 4  2 4 4
A  A. A  4 2 4 . 4 2 4
2

4 4 2 4 4 2

4  16  16 (8(4)  8  16 8  16  8 
  8  8  16 16  4  16 16  8  8 
 8  16  8 16  8  8 16  16  4
36 32 32
A 2
 32 36 32
32 32 36
36 32 32 2 4 4
A  8 A  32 36 32  84 2 4
2

32 32 36 4 4 2

22 | P a g e
 36 32 32 16 32 32
 32 36 32  32 16 32
32 32 36 32 32 16 
36  16 32  32 32  32
 32  32 36  16 32  32
32  32 32  32 36  16 
20 0 0 
A  8 A   0 20 0  is a scalar matrix
2

 0 0 20
Exercise :
1  5 1 0 
1) If A =  ,B=  , find the matrix AB  2I
6 4  0  1
1
1 2 3
2) If A = 4 5 6 and B = 9 , find AB
8
4 3
3) If A = 2 5 , find A2  9 A + 14 I, where I is unit matrix.
 3 1   0 2   1 x
   
4) If 3 4 0   2  2 3    = y , find x, y, z
 3  3  2
 5 4  z 
5) Find x and y satisfying the matrix equation
1 2 x y 3 7 0 7 
3 2 3  1 2 = 9 4 13
2 4 4
6) If A = 4 2 4 , find A2
4 4 2
0 1 −1
7) If A=[4 −3 4 ] prove that A2 = I
3 −3 4

Transpose of a matrix:

Definition: The transpose of a matrix A is obtained by interchanging rows

and columns of matrix A. It is denoted by A′ or At or AT
𝑎 𝑝
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 ′
For e.g.: If 𝐴 = [ ] 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐴 = [𝑏 𝑞 ]
𝑝 𝑞 𝑟
𝑐 𝑟
Properties:
I. (𝐴′ )′ = 𝐴
II. (𝐴 + 𝐵)′ = 𝐴′ + 𝐵′

23 | P a g e
 III. (𝐴 × 𝐵)′ = 𝐵′ × 𝐴′

Symmetric Matrix:

Definition: In a matrix A, if 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 𝑎𝑗𝑖 for all 𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑗 then matrix is known as symmetric matrix
i.e. if 𝐴 = 𝐴′ then matrix is known as symmetric matrix.
1 2 −4
For e.g. 𝐴 = [ 2 5 3 ]
−4 3 9

Skew Symmetric Matrix:

Definition: In a matrix A, if aij = −aji for all 𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑗 then matrix is known as skew symmetric
matrix i.e. if 𝐴 = −𝐴′ then matrix is skew symmetric matrix.
0 2 −3
For e.g. 𝐴 = [−2 0 5]
3 −5 0
𝐼𝑓 𝐴𝐴′ = 𝐴′ 𝐴 = 𝐼 then A is called orthogonal matrix.

Solved examples:
2 3  1  1 2 4
1. If A =   and B =   , verify that (A + B)T = AT + BT
4 5 0   1 3 0
Solution:
2 3  1  1 2 4
A = 4 5  B= 
 0   1 3 0
 2 4  1 1
AT =  3 5 BT =  2 3
 1 0  4 0
2 3  1  1 2 4
A+B =  + 
4 5 0   1 3 0
2  1 3 + 2  1 + 4
= 
4 + 1 5 + 3 0 + 0 
1 5 3
A + B = 5 8 0
1 5
(A + B) =5 8
T
...(1)
3 0
 2 4  1 1
A + B = 3 5 +  2 3
T T 

 1 0  4 0

24 | P a g e
  2  1 4 + 1 1 5
= 3 + 2 5 + 3 = 5 8 … (2)
 1 + 4 0 + 0 3 0
From (1) and (2)
(A + B)T = AT + BT

2  3 3  1 2
2. If A = 1  and B = 1  then verify that (AB) = BA
 5  0 1
Solution:
2  3 3  1 2
A = 1  and B = 1 
 5   0 1
 3 1
 2 1
A =   and B =  1 0
 3 5
 2 1
2  3 3  1 2
AB = 1   
 5  1 0 1
6  3  2 + 0 4  3
=  
3 + 5  1 + 0 2 + 5
3  2 1
AB =  
8  1 7
3 8 
(AB) =  2  1
 … (i)
1 7 
 3 1 2 1  6  3 3+5 
   
B A =  1 0   =  2 + 0  1 + 0

 3 5 
 2 1  43 2+5 
3 8
B A=   2  1 … (ii)
1 7
From (i) and (ii) (AB) = B  A

1 2  1 1 0 0
3.
 
If A = 3 0 2  and B = 2 1 0 , verify that (AB) = B A
4 5 0  0 1 3
Solution:
1 2  1 1 0 0
 
Given A=3 0 2  and B = 2 1 0
4 5 0  0 1 3
 1 3 4 1 2 0
A=  2 0 5 and B = 0 1 1
 1 2 0 0 0 3

25 | P a g e
 1 2  1 1 0 0
AB = 3 0 2  2 1 0
4 5 0  0 1 3
 1 + 4 + 0 0 + 2  1 0 + 0  3
=  3 + 0 + 0 0 + 0 + 2 0 + 0 + 6
4 + 10 + 0 0 + 5 + 0 0 + 0 + 0
 5 1  3
AB =  3 2 6 
14 5 0 
 5 3 14
(AB) =  1 2 5 

… (i)
 3 6 0 
1 2 0  1 3 4
B  A = 0 1 1  2 0 5
0 0 3  1 2 0
1 + 4 + 0 3 + 0 + 0 4 + 10 + 0
= 0 + 2  1 0 + 0 + 2 0 + 5 + 0 
0 + 0  3 0 + 0 + 6 0 + 0 + 0 
 5 3 14
B  A =  1 2 5  … (ii)
 3 6 0 
From (i) and (ii)
(AB) = B  A

Exercise:
1) If A = 
1 2  2 6
 and B =   , find (AB)T
5 3  3 4
2) If A = 
1 3 2  1
2 4 and B = 3 2  , verify that (A + B) = A + B
T T T

1 3 2  1
3) If A = 2 4 , B = 3  ,verify that (AB)T = BT  AT
 2
1 2 1 1 2 3
4) If A =  0 2 3  1 1 5 , verify that (AB) = B  A
,B= 
0 0 1 2 4 7
 1  3 1 0 1
5) If A =  ,B=  , verify that (AB) = B  A
 2  1 2  1 3
 3 7
2 3  1
6) If A = 1 0  B =  5 6 then show that (AB) = B  A
 4
 4 4
Singular matrix
A square matrix A is called singular matrix if det (A) or |A| = 0.
Non-Singular matrix

26 | P a g e
 A square matrix A is called non-singular, if det (A) or |A|  0.

Solved Example:
0 1
 2 0 1
1) If A =   , B = 2 3 Show that the matrix AB is non-singular.
 1 2 3
1 1
0 1
 2 0 1
Solution: Given A =   B = 2 3
 1 2 3
1 1
0 1
 2 0 1 2 3
AB =  
 1 2 3  
1 1
0 + 0 + 1  2 + 0 + 1 1  1
AB =  = 
0 + 4 + 3 1 + 6 + 3  7 10 
1  1
|AB| = 7  = 10 + 7
 10 
|AB| = 17  0
 AB is a non-singular matrix.
Exercise:
1 4
1) Prove that the matrix 6 9 is nonsingular matrix.
1 2  2 1
2) If A = 3 4 , B = 0 3 Show that AB is non-singular matrix.
2 1 1 2 
3) If A =  B =  decide whether AB is singular or non-singular matrix ?
0 3 3 –2

Adjoint of a matrix:

Adjoint of a matrix is the transpose of co-factor matrix

t
∴ Adj A = [cij ]
Co-factor matrix is a matrix of co-factors=[𝑐𝑖𝑗 ]
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑗 = (−1)𝑖+𝑗 × 𝑀𝑖𝑗 where
Minor 𝑀𝑖𝑗 = determinant of matrix obtained by deleting ith row & jth
column of given matrix.
Solved examples:
−1 1 1
1. If A=[ 2 4 2] , find Adj A
3 2 1

27 | P a g e
 −1 1 1
Solution: Given A=[ 2 4 2]
3 2 1
4 2
𝑐11 = (−1)1+1 × | | = +(4 − 4) = 0
2 1
2 2
𝑐12 = (−1)1+2 × | | = −(2 − 6) = 4
3 1
2 4
𝑐13 = (−1)1+3 × | | = +(4 − 12) = −8
3 2
1 1
𝑐21 = (−1)2+1 × | | = − (1 − 2 ) = 1
2 1
−1 1
𝑐22 = (−1)2+2 × | | = +(−1 − 3) = −4
3 1
−1 1
𝑐23 = (−1)2+3 × | | = −(−2 − 3) = 5
3 2
1 1
𝑐31 = (−1)3+1 × | | = +(2 − 4) = −2
4 2
−1 1
𝑐32 = (−1)3+2 × | | = −(−1 − 3) = 4
3 1
−1 1
𝑐33 = (−1)3+3 × | | = +(−4 − 2) = −6
2 4
0 4 −8
∴ 𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 = 𝐶 = [ 1 −4 5 ]
−2 4 −6
0 1 −2
∴ 𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = 𝐶 𝑡 = [ 4 −4 4 ]
−8 5 −6

Exercise:
1 0  1
1) Find adjoint of matrix of A. If A = 3 4 5

0  6  7
1 2 6
2) Find the adjoint of matrix of A if A = 7 2 5

8 2 10
2  1  3
3) Find adjoint of the matrix A. If A = 3  4  2
5 2 4
 1 1 1
4) If A =  2 4 4 Find adjoint of A
 3 2 1

Inverse of a matrix:
If matrix A is a non-singular matrix and if there exists a matrix B such that
𝐴 × 𝐵 = 𝐵 × 𝐴 = 𝐼 then matrix B is the inverse of A.
Notation: Inverse of A = 𝐴−1

28 | P a g e
 1
Formula: A−1 = det A × Adj A
Solved example:
3 1 2
1. Find the inverse of the matrix 𝐴 = [4 1 1]
2 −1 3
3 1 2
Solution : Given 𝐴 = [4 1 1]
2 −1 3
|𝐴| = 3(3 + 1) − 1(12 − 2) + 2(−4 − 2)
= 12 − 10 − 12 = −10  0
∴ 𝐴−1 exists
1 1
𝑐11 = (−1)1+1 × | | = +(3 + 1) = 4
−1 3
4 1
𝑐12 = (−1)1+2 × | | = −(12 − 2) = −10
2 3
4 1
𝑐13 = (−1)1+3 × | | = +(−4 − 2) = −6
2 −1
1 2
𝑐21 = (−1)2+1 × | | = −(3 + 2) = −5
−1 3
3 2
𝑐22 = (−1)2+2 × | | = +(9 − 4) = 5
2 3
3 1
𝑐23 = (−1)2+3 × | | = −(−3 − 2) = 5
2 −1
1 2
𝑐31 = (−1)3+1 × | | = +(1 − 2) = −1
1 1
3 2
𝑐32 = (−1)3+2 × | | = − (3 − 8) = 5
4 1
3 1
𝑐33 = (−1)3+3 × | | = +(3 − 4) = −1
4 1
4 −10 −6
∴ 𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 = 𝐶 = [−5 5 5]
−1 5 −1
4 −5 −1
∴ 𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = 𝐶 𝑡 = [−10 5 5]
−6 5 −1
4 −5 −1
1
∴ 𝐴−1 = −10 × [−10 5 5]
−6 5 −1
 3  3 4
 
2. Find the inverse of the matrix A  2  3 4
0  1 1
 3  3 4
 
Solution: A  2  3 4
0  1 1

29 | P a g e
 3 3 4
A  2 3 4
0 1 1
3 4 2 4 2 3
3  (3) 4
1 1 0 1 0 1
 3 68
1 0
1
∴ A exists
To find cofactor matrix
3 4
C11      3  4  1
1 1
2 4
C12    2  0   2
0 1
2 3
C13     2  0   2
0 1
3 4
C21     3  4   1
1 1
3 4
C22     3  0  3
0 1
3 3
C23      3  0  3
0 1
3 4
C31      12  12  0
3 4
3 4
C32     12  8  4
2 4
3 3
C33      9  6   3
2 3
 1  2  2
Cofactor matrix   1 3 3 
 0  4  3
 1 1 0 
AdjA   2 3  4
 2 3  3

30 | P a g e
  1 1 0 
AdjA   2 3  4
1 1 1
A 
A 1
 2 3  3

Exercise:
 1 2  2
1) 
Find the inverse of the matrix A =  1 3 0  by using adjoint matrix.
 0 2 1 
 1 3 2 
2) Find the inverse of the matrix A =  3 3  1 by using adjoint method.
 2 1 0 
2  1 0
3) Find A1 by adjoint method if A = 1 0 4
1  1 1
 1 2 4
4) Find inverse of the matrix A =  1 2 3 using adjoint method.
 1 4 1
1 2 3
5) Find the inverse of matrix by adjoint method A = 2 4 5
3 5 6

𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐥𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐞𝐨𝐮𝐬 𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬:

Suppose a1x+ b1 y + c1z = d1
a2x+ b2 y + c2z = d2
a3x+ b3 y + c3z = d3
are the simultaneous equations.
These equations can be represented in matrix form as follows:
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝑥 𝑑1
[𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 ] [𝑦] = [𝑑2 ] i.e. 𝐴 × 𝑋 = 𝐵 where
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3 𝑧 𝑑3
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝑥 𝑑1
𝐴 = [𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 ] ; 𝑋 = [𝑦] ; 𝐵 = [𝑑2 ]
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3 𝑧 𝑑3
−1
∴ 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑋 = 𝐴 × B where
1
𝐴−1 = det 𝐴 × 𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝐴

31 | P a g e
Solved Example:
1. Solve the equation using matrix method:
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 3; 𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 4; 𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 9𝑧 = 6
Solution : 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 3;
𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 4;
𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 9𝑧 = 6
Matrix Equation: 𝐴 × 𝑋 = 𝐵
1 1 1 𝑥 3
Where 𝐴 = [1 2 3] ; 𝑋 = [𝑦] ; 𝐵 = [4]
1 4 9 𝑧 6
∴ |𝐴| = 1(18 − 12) − 1(9 − 3) + 1(4 − 2) = 6 − 6 + 2 = 2 ≠ 0
∴ 𝐴−1 exists
2 3
𝑐11 = (−1)1+1 | | = +(18 − 12) = 6
4 9
1 3
𝑐12 = (−1)1+2 | | = −(9 − 3) = −6
1 9
1 2
𝑐13 = (−1)1+3 | | = +(4 − 2) = 2
1 4
1 1
𝑐21 = (−1)2+1 | | = − (9 − 4) = 5
4 9
1 1
𝑐22 = (−1)2+2 | | = + (9 − 1) = 8
1 9
1 1
𝑐23 = (−1)2+3 | | = −(4 − 1) = −3
1 4
1 1
𝑐31 = (−1)3+1 | | = + (3 − 2) = 1
2 3
1 1
𝑐32 = (−1)3+2 | | = −(3 − 1) = −2
1 3
1 1
𝑐33 = (−1)3+3 | | = + (2 − 1) = 1
1 2
6 −6 2
∴ 𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 = 𝐶 = [5 8 −3]
1 −2 1
6 5 1
𝑡
∴ 𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = 𝐶 = [−6 8 −2]
2 −3 1
1 1 6 5 1
∴ 𝐴−1 = × 𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = × [−6 8 −2]
det 𝐴 2
2 −3 1
∴ 𝑋 = 𝐴−1 × B
1 6 5 1 3
= × [−6 8 −2] × [4]
2
2 −3 1 6

32 | P a g e
 1 18 − 20 + 6
= × [−18 + 32 − 12]
2
6 − 12 + 6
1 4
= × [2 ]
2
0
𝑥 2
[𝑦] = [1]
𝑧 0
∴ 𝑥 = 2; 𝑦 = 1; 𝑧 = 0
2. Using matrix inversion method, solve the following system of equations
x+ y + z = 3 , 3x - 2y + 3z = 4 5x + 5y +z = 11
Solution: x+ y + z = 3
3x - 2y + 3z = 4
5x + 5y +z = 11
Given system of equation can be written in matrix form
1 1 1  x   3 
3  2 3  y    4 
    
5 5 1  z  11
AX  B
 X  A 1  B
1 1 1  x 3
    B   4 
Where A  3  2 3 , X   y 
5 5 1  z  11
1 1 1
Here, A  3  2 3
5 5 1
 1 17  1 12  125
 17  12  25
A  20  0
A1 exists
To find the cofactor matrix of A
2 3
C11      2  15   17
5 1
3 3
C12     3  15 12
5 1

33 | P a g e
 3 2
C13     15  10  25
5 5
1 1
C21     1  5  4
5 1
1 1
C22     1  5  4
5 1
1 1
C23     5  5  0
5 5
1 1
C31     3  2  5
2 3
1 1
C32     3  3  0
3 3
1 1
C33     2  3  5
3 2
 17 12 25 
cofactor matrix   4  4 0 
 5 0  5

 17 4 5

AdjA   12  4 0 
 25 0  5
 17 4 5
1 
12  4 0 
11
A  AdjA  
A 20
 25 0  5
∴ 𝑋 = 𝐴−1 × B

𝑥 −17 4 5 3
1
[𝑦] = [ 12 −4 0 ] [4]
20
𝑧 25 0 −5 11
 51  16  55
1 
  36  16  0 
20
 75  0  55 

34 | P a g e
  x 20
 y   1 20
  20  
 z  20

 x 1
 y   1
  
 z  1

 x  1 , y  1, z  1
Exercise:
1) Solve the equations using matrix method
x + 3y + 2z = 6, 3x  2y + 5z = 5, 2x  3y + 6z = 7
2) Using matrix method, solve the following equations
x + 3y + 3z = 12; x + 4y + 4z = 15; x + 3y + 4z = 13
3) Using matrix inversion method solves the equations.
x + y + z = 3; x + 2y + 3z = 4; x + 4y + 9z = 6
4) Using matrix method, solve the simultaneous equation.
x + y + z = 6; x  y + 2z = 5 ; 2x + y  z = 1
5) Solve by matrix method the set of equations.
x+y+z=2; y+z=1; z+x=3
6) Solve the following equations by matrix inversion method.
3x + y + 2z = 3 , 2x – 3y – z = –3, x + 2y + z = 4
7) Solve the equations by inversion matrix method.
3x + y + 2z = 3, 2x  3y  z =  3, x + 2y + z = 4

Partial fraction

Significance : Partial fraction plays a very important role in separation of given expression.
P( x)
Rational fraction: An expression of the type , where P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials in
Q( x)
x , is called rational fraction.
𝑥 2 +4𝑥+8
e.g , is a rational fraction.
𝑥+2
There are two types of fractions proper fraction and improper fraction.
P( x)
Proper fraction: In the fraction , if the degree of the polynomial P(x) is smaller than
Q( x)
the degree of the polynomial Q(x) then the fraction is said to be proper fraction .
𝑥+2
e.g is a proper fraction.
𝑥 3 +5𝑥+6

35 | P a g e
 P( x)
Improper fraction : In the fraction , if the degree of the polynomial P(x) is greater than
Q( x)
or equal to the degree of the polynomial Q(x) then the fraction is said to be improper fraction
x 3  3 𝑥 2+1
e.g. , 2 are improper fractions.
x 2  4 𝑥 −1
Improper fraction to Proper fraction: Any improper fraction can be expressed as sum of a
polynomial and a proper fraction by division method.
Remainder
i.e. Improper fraction = Quotient +
Divisor
R
=Q+
D

P(x)
Partial Fraction: Every proper fraction can be expressed as sum or difference of simple
Q(x)
P(x)
fractions. These simple fractions are called as partial fractions of
Q(x)
1 1 1
e.g. = +
(x + 2) (x + 1) (x + 2) (x + 1)
1 1 1
Here , is proper fraction of
(x + 2) (x + 1) (x + 2) (x + 1)

Methods to find partial fractions:

Depending upon the nature of factors of the denominator there are three cases
CASE I: When denominator contains non repeated linear factors:
If the denominator contains non-repeated linear factor of the type (ax + b) then for each such
A
factor there is partial fraction of the type
(ax + b)
ax  b A B C
In general   
( x   )( x   )( x   ) ( x   ) ( x   ) ( x   )
Where A, B, C etc. are constants to be determined.

SOLVED EXMPLES
1
1) Resolve into partial fractions
x x
2

1 1
Solution: =
x x2
x(x  1)
1 A B
Let = + … (1)
x(x  1) x (x  1)

36 | P a g e
 1 A(x  1) + B(x)
=
x(x  1) x(x  1)
Comparing numerators
 1 = A(x  1) + B(x) …..(2)
To find A, Put x = 0 in equation (2), we get
1 = A(0  1) + B(0)
 1 = A( 1)
 1=A
A=1
To find B, Put x = 1 in equation (2), we get
1 = A(0) + B(1)
 1 = B(1)
 B=1
Putting the value of A and B in equation (1)
1 1 1
 2 = +
x x x (x  1)
x2 + 1
2) Resolve into partial fractions
x(x2  1)
x2 + 1 x2 + 1
Solution: =
x(x2  1) x(x + 1) (x  1)
x2 + 1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
Let = 𝑋 + 𝑋+1 + 𝑋−1 … (1)
x(x + 1) (x  1)
x2 + 1 A(x + 1) (x  1) + B(x) (x  1) + C(x) (x + 1)
 =
x(x + 1) (x  1) x(x + 1) (x  1)
Comparing numerators
 x2 + 1 = A(x + 1) (x  1) + B(x) (x  1) + C(x) (x + 1)… (2)
To find A, Put x = 0 in equation (2), we get
02 + 1 = A(0 + 1) (0  1) + B(0) + C(0)
1 = A(1) ( 1)
 1 = A( 1)
 1=A
 A=1
To find B, Put x = 1 in equation (2), we get
( 1)2 + 1 = A(0) + B( 1) ( 1  1) + C(0)
 1 + 1 = B( 1) ( 2)
 2 = B(2)
 B=1
To find C, Put x = 1 in equation (2), we get
(1)2 + 1 = A(0) + B(0) + C(1) (1 + 1)

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 1 + 1 = C(1) (2)
2 = C(2)
 C=1
Putting the value of A, B, C in equation (1)
x2 + 1 1 1 1
= + +
x(x  1)
2
x (x + 1) (x  1)
x+3
3) Resolve into partial fractions
(x – 1) (x + 1) (x + 5)
Solution : Let,
x+3 A B C
= + +
(x – 1) (x + 1) (x + 5) x–1 x+1 x+5
 x + 3 = A(x + 1)(x + 5) + B(x – 1)(x + 5) + C(x – 1)(x + 1)
Put x = 1
 4 = A(2)(6)
 4 = 12 A
1
 A=
3
Put x = –1
– 1 + 3 = B(–2)(4)
 2 = – 8B
1
B= –
4
Put x = – 5
– 5 + 3 = C(– 6)(– 4)
 –2 = 24C
–1
 C=
12
1 1 1
– –
x+3 3 4 12
= + +
(x – 1) (x + 1) (x + 5) x–1 x+1 x+5

EXERCISE:

Resolve into partial fractions

1 1 1
1) 2 2) 3)
x 1 x x
2 2
x + 3x + 2

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 2x + 3 x2 + 4x + 1 2x  3
4) 2 5) 6)
x  2x  3 (x  1) (x + 1) (x + 3) (x  1) (2x + 3)
2

3x  1 2
x + 5x + 7 x+4
7) 8) 9)
(x  4) (2x + 1) (x  1) (x  1) (x + 2) (x + 4) x(x + 1) (x + 2)

Problem Reducible to Case I after Suitable Substitution

tan  + 1
1. Resolve into partial fractions
(tan  + 2) (tan  + 3)
tan  + 1
Solution: Given
(tan  + 2) (tan  + 3)
t+1
Put tan  = t then
(t + 2) (t + 3)
t+1
Now is a proper fraction. Here factors of denominator are linear and unequal.
(t + 2) (t + 3)
t+1 A B
Let, = + … (1)
(t + 2) (t + 3) (t + 2) (t + 3)
t+1 A(t + 3) + B(t + 2)
 =
(t + 2) (t + 3) (t + 2) (t + 3)
Comparing numerators,
t + 1 = A(t + 3) + B(t + 2) … (2)
To find A, Put t =  2 in equation (2), we get
 2 + 1 = A( 2 + 3) + B(0)
  1 = A(1)
 1=A
 A=1
To find B, Put t =  3 in equation (2), we get
 3 + 1 = A(0) + B( 3 + 2)
  2 = B( 1)
 2=B
 B=2
Putting the value of A and B in equation (1)
t+1 1 2
= +
(t + 2) (t + 3) (t + 2) (t + 3)
But t = tan 
tan  + 1 1 2
= +
(tan  + 2) (tan  + 3) (tan  + 2) (tan  + 3)

ex
2. Resolve into partial fractions
e2x + 4ex + 3

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 ex
Solution: Given 2x [e2x = (ex)2 = t2]
e + 4ex + 3
t
Put ex = t then 2
t + 4t + 3
t
Now 2 is a proper fraction.
t + 4t + 3
t t
2 =
t + 4t + 3 (t + 3) (t + 1)
t A B
Let, = + … (1)
(t + 3) (t + 1) (t + 3) (t + 1)
t A(t + 1) + B(t + 3)
 =
(t + 3) (t + 1) (t + 3) (t + 1)
Comparing numerators,
 t = A(t + 1) + B(t + 3) … (2)
To find A, Put t =  3 in equation (2), we get
 3 = A( 3 + 1) + B(0)
  3 = A( 2)
  3 =  2A
 3 = 2A
3
 A=
2
To find B, Put t =  1 in equation (2), we get
 1 = A(0) + B( 1 + 3)
  1 = B(2)
1
 B=
2
Putting the value of A and B in equation (1)
t 3/2  1/2
= +
(t + 3) (t + 1) (t + 3) (t + 1)
But t= ex
ex 3 1
 x x = x  x
(e + 3) (e + 1) 2(e + 3) 2(e + 1)
Exercise:

Resolve into partial fractions

sin  + 1 x2 + 1
1. 2. 4
(sin  + 2) (sin  + 3) 2x + 5x2 + 2

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 ex + 1 tan  log x
3. x 4. 5.
(e + 2) (ex + 3) (tan  + 2) (tan  + 3) (log x  2) (log x  3)

CASE II: When denominator contains repeated linear factors:

ax  b A B C
  
( x   )( x   ) 2
(x   ) (x   ) (x   )2
Here ( x   ) is linear non- repeated factor and ( x   ) 2 is repeated linear factor.

SOLVED EXAMPLES:
9
1. Resolve into partial fractions
(x  1) (x + 2)2
9 A B C
Solution: 2= + + … (1)
(x  1) (x + 2) (x  1) (x + 2) (x + 2)2
9 A(x + 2)2 + B(x  1) (x + 2) + C(x  1)
=
(x  1) (x + 2)2 (x  1) (x + 2)2
Comparing numerators
 9 = A(x + 2)2 + B(x  1) (x + 2) + C(x  1) … (2)
To find A, Put x = 1 in equation (2), we get
9 = A(1 + 2)2 + B(0) + C(0)
 9 = A(3)2
 9 = A(9)
9
 A=  A=1
9
To find C, Put x = 2 in equation (2), we get
9 = A(0) + B(0) + C( 2  1)
 9 = C( 3)
9
 C=  C=3
3
To find B, Put x = 0 in equation (2), we get
9 = A(0 + 2)2 + B(0  1) (0 + 2) + C(0  1)
 9 = A(2)2 + B( 1) (2) + C( 1)
 9 = A(4) + B( 2) + C( 1)
 9 = 1(4) + B( 2)  3( 1)
 9 = 4 + B( 2) + 3
 9 = 7 + B( 2)
 9  7= B( 2)
 2 = B( 2)

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 2
 B= B=1
2
Putting the value of A, B, C in equation (1), we get
9 1 1 3
2 = – –
(x  1) (x + 2) (x  1) (x + 2) (x + 2)2
2x  1
2 Resolve into partial fractions 2
x ( x  1)
2x  1 A B C
Solution:   2           1
x ( x  1)
2
x x ( x  1)
2x  1 x( x  1) A  ( x  1) B  x 2 C

x 2 ( x  1) x 2 ( x  1)
 2 x  1  x( x  1) A  ( x  1) B  x 2C          2
Put x = 0 in equation 2 , we get
2(0)  1  0(0  1) A  (0  1) B  (0) 2 C
1  0(1) A  (1) B  (0) 2 C
1  0 A  (1) B  0C
1 B
Put x =  1 in equation 2 , we get
2(1)  1   1(1  1) A  (1  1) B  (1) 2 C
 2  1   1(0) A  (0) B  1C
 1 0 A  (0) B  1C
1  C
Put x= 0 in equation 2 , we get
2(1)  1  1(1  1) A  (1  1) B  (1) 2 C
2(1)  1  1(2) A  (2) B  (1) 2 C
3  2 A  2B  C
3  2 A  2(1)  (1)
3  2A 1
2A  2
A 1
Put the values of A , B , and C equation 1 , we get
2x  1 1 1 1
  2
x ( x  1)
2
x x ( x  1)
3x  2
3 . Resolve in to partial fractions
( x  1)( x 2  1)

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 3x  2 3x  2
Solution: =
( x  1)( x  1) ( x  1)( x  1)( x  1)
2

3x  2
=
( x  1)( x  1) 2
3x  2 A B c
Let              1
( x  1)( x  1) 2
x  1 x  1 ( x  1) 2
3x  2 ( x  1) 2 A  ( x  1)( x  1) B  ( x  1)C
 
( x  1)( x  1) 2 ( x  1)( x  1) 2
 3x  2  ( x  1) 2 A  ( x  1)( x  1) B  ( x  1)C          2
Put x =1 in equation 2 , we get
3(1)  2  (1  1) 2 A  (1  1)(1  1) B  (1  1)C
5  (2) 2 A  (2)(0) B  (0)C
5  4 A  0 B  (0)C
5  4A
5
 A
4
Put x =  1 in equation 2 , we get
3(1)  2  (1  1) 2 A  (1  1)(1  1) B  (1  1)C
 3  2  (0) 2 A  (0)(2) B  (2)C
 1  0 A  0 B  (2)C
1  2C
1 1
C  
2 2
Put x = 0 in equation 2 , we get
3(0)  2  (0  1) 2 A  (0  1)(0  1) B  (0  1)C
2  A  (1)( 1) B  (1)C
2  A  B C
5 1
2 B
4 2
5 1
B   2
4 2
5 28
B
4
5
 B
4
Put the values of A, B and in 1 , we get

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 5 5 1
3x  2
 4  4  2
( x  1)( x  1) 2 x  1 x  1 ( x  1) 2

EXERCISE:

Resolve in to partial fraction

1 x2  2x + 7 2x + 3
1. 2. 3.
2
(x + 1) (x + 2) (x + 1) (x  1)2 x (x  1)
2

x2 2x  3 x2 + x + 1
2. 5. 6.
(x + 1) (x  2)2
(x + 1) (x2  1) (x  2) (x2  4)
3x2 + 5x x2 2x2 + 5
7. 2 8. 9.
(x  1) (x + 1) (x + 1) (x + 2)2 (x  1)2 (x  3)

CASE III : When denominator contains non repeated irreducible

quadratic factor :
ax  b A Bx  C
  2
( x   )( x   ) ( x   ) ( x   )
2

Here ( x   ) is linear non- repeated factor and ( x 2   ) is an irreducible quadratic factor

SOLVED EXAMPLES:
3x  2
1 Resolve in to partial fraction
( x  2)( x 2  4)
3x  2 A Bx  C
Solution : Let   2                1
( x  2)( x  4) x  2 x  4
2

3x  2 ( x 2  4) A  ( Bx  C )( x  2)

( x  2)( x 2  4) ( x  2)( x 2  4)
3x  2  ( x 2  4) A  ( Bx  C )( x  2)        2
Put x = - 2 in equation 2 , we get
3(2)  2  ((2) 2  4) A  ( B(2)  C )(2  2)
 6  2  (4  4) A  (2 B  C )(0)
 8  (8) A  (0)
 8 (8) A
8
A  1
8
Put x = 0 in equation 2 , we get
3(0)  2  ((0) 2  4) A  ( B(0)  C )((0)  2)

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 0  2  (0  4) A  (0)  C )(( 0)  2)
 2  (4) A  C (2)
 2  (4)( 1)  C (2)
 2  4  2C
 2  4  2C
2  2C
C 1
Put x = 1 in equation 2
3(1)  2  (12  4) A  ( B(1)  C )(1  2)
3  2  (1  4) A  ( B  C )(1  2)
1  (5) A  ( B  C )(3)
1  5(1)  3B  3(1)
1  5  3  3B
3  3B
B 1
Put the values of A , B , C in equation 1
3x  2 1 1x  1
  2
( x  2)( x  4) x  2 x  4
2

x2 + 23x
2) Resolve into partial fractions
(x + 3) (x2 + 1)
Given fraction
x2 + 23x A (Bx + C)
2 = + 2 … (1)
(x + 3) (x + 1) (x + 3) (x + 1)
x2 + 23x A (x2 + 1) + (Bx + C) (x + 3)
 =
(x + 3) (x2 + 1) (x + 3) (x2 + 1)
Comparing numerator’s
 x2 + 23x = A (x2 + 1) + (Bx + C) (x + 3) …(2)
Put x = – 3 in equation (2)
(– 3)2 + 23 (– 3) = A ((– 3)2 + 1)
9 – 69 = A (9 + 1)
– 60 = A (10)
 A=–6
Put x = 0, A = – 6 in equation (2), we get
02 + 23(0) = – 6 (02 + 1) + (B (0) + C) (0 + 3)
0 = – 6 (1) + (C) (3)

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 0 = – 6 + 3C
6
C=
3
C=2
Put x = 1, A = – 6 and C = 2 in equation (1), we get
(1)2 + 23(1) = – 6 ((1)2 + 1) + (B(1) + 2) (1 + 3)
1 + 23 = – 6(2) + (B + 2) (4)
24 = – 12 + 4B + 8
24 = – 4 + 4B
24 + 4 = 4B
28 = 4B
28
 B=
4
B=7
Putting the value of A, B, C in equation (1)
x2 + 23x –6 (7x + 2)
2 = + 2
(x + 3) (x + 23x) (x + 3) (x + 1)

EXERCISE:
2x + 1 x2 + 36x + 6 2x  3
1. 2. 3.
(x  1) (x2 + 1) (x  1) (x2 + 2) (x + 1) (x2 + 4)
x2 – x + 3 x 5 x2 + 1
4. 5. 6.
(x – 2) (x2 + 1) x + x2  5x
3
x3 + 1
x 2 x 3x2 + 17x + 14
7. 8. 9.
x3 + 1 x3  1 x3  8
3x  2 x2 + 23x x2  2x + 3
10. 11. 12.
(x + 2) (x2 + 4) (x  3) (x2 + 1) (x3 + x)

Partial fraction of improper fraction

Solved examples:
x3 + x
1) Resolve into partial fractions :
x2  4
x3 + x
Solution : Given fraction is a improper fraction.
x2  4
We first convert this improper fraction into proper fraction by division method.
Divide numerator by denominator

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 5x 5x
Consider =
x2  4 (x + 2) (x  2)
5x A B
Let, = + … (2)
(x + 2) (x  2) (x + 2) (x  2)
5x A(x  2) + B(x + 2)
 =
(x + 2) (x  2) (x + 2) (x  2)
Comparing numerators
 5x = A(x  2) + B (x + 2) … (3)
To find A, Put x =  2 in equation (3), we get
 5( 2) = A( 2  2) + B(0)
  10 = A( 4)
 10 = A(4)
10 5
 A=  A=
4 2
To find B, Put x = 2 in equation (3), we get
5(2) = A(0) + B(2 + 2)
 10 = B(4)
10 5
 B=  B=
4 2
Putting the value of A, B in equation (2), we get
5x 5/2 5/2
= +
(x  4) (x + 2) (x  2)
2

Equation (1) becomes

x3 + x 5 5
=x+ +
x 4
2
2(x + 2) 2(x  2)
x2 + 1
2. Resolve into partial fractions : 2
x 1
2
x +1
Solution : Given fraction 2 is a improper fraction.
x 1
We first convert this improper fraction into proper fraction by division method.
Divide numerator by denominator

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 1 Quotient (Q)
2 2
2 Divisor x –1 x +1
x + 1 R (D) 2
= Q+
2
x –1
D – x –
+
1

2 2 Remainder (R)
x + 1 2 .. .. (1)
2 = 1+ 2
x –1 x –1

Proper fraction

2 2
Consider, =
x  1 (x + 1) (x  1)
2

2 A B
Let, = + … (2)
(x + 1) (x  1) (x + 1) (x  1)
2 A(x  1) + B(x + 1)
 =
(x + 1) (x  1) (x + 1) (x  1)
Comparing numerators
 2 = A(x  1) + B(x + 1) … (3)
To find A, Put x =  1 in equation (3), we get
 2 = A( 1  1) + B(0)
 2 = A( 2)
2
 A=  A=1
2
To find B, Put x = 1 in equation (3), we get
2 = A(0) + B(1 + 1)
 2 = B(2)
2
 B=
2
 B=1
Putting the value of A, B in equation (2), we get
2 1 1
= +
x  1 (x + 1) (x  1)
2

Equation (1) becomes

x2 + 1 1 1
= 1 +
x 1
2
(x + 1) (x  1)

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Exercise:
Resolve into partial fractions:
x3 + 1 x4 x3 + 1
1. 2. 3.
x2 + 2x x3 + 1 x2 + 6x
x3 + x x2 + x x4
4. 2 5. 2 6. 3
x 9 x 4 x 1

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54 | P a g e
 Unit 2
Trigonometry

Course Outcome: Utilize basic concepts of trigonometry to solve elementary engineering

problems.
Unit outcome:
a. Apply the concept of compound angle, allied angle, and multiple angles to solve the given
simple engineering problem(s).
b. Apply the concept of Sub- multiple angle to solve the given simple engineering related
problem(s).
c. Employ concept of factorization and de-factorization formulae to solve the given simple
engineering problem(s).
d. Investigate given simple problems utilizing inverse trigonometric ratios.

Introduction: Trigonometry is a study of relationships in Mathematics involving lengths,

heights and angles of different triangles. Presently Trigonometry finds wide applications in
engineering faculties like Applied Mechanics, Electrical Technology, Basic Electronics, and
Computer Engineering etc.
Subtopic: Compound angles, Allied angles, Multiple and Submultiple angles.
Significance : This sub-topic is used to find trigonometric ratios of angles other than standard
angles.
Some important formulae:
I. Fundamental Identities:
 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = 1
 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2𝜃
 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2𝜃
II. For a right–angled triangle
𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒
 sin θ =  sec θ =
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒
 cos θ =  cosec θ =
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
 tan θ =  cot θ =
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒

Also we have,

55 | P a g e
 1
 cosec θ = sin θ
1
 sec θ = cos θ
1
 cot θ = tan θ
𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ
 tan θ = cos θ
𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ
 cot θ = sin θ

 cosec θ × sin θ = 1
 sec θ × cos θ = 1
 cot θ × tan θ = 1
III. Measures of an angle : In practice we use two systems to measure the angle.
a) Sexagesimal system (Degree) : In this system , the unit of measurement is degree.
b) Circular systems (Radian) : In this system , the unit of measurement is radian.
Relation between degrees and radians:
Notation: Any angle can be measured in degrees = θο and in radians = θ𝒸
1. Conversion of angle in degrees to angle in radians
𝜋
𝛳𝒸 = θο × 180
2. Conversion of radians to degree
180
𝛳𝜊 = θ𝒸 × 𝜋
The following table shows the conversion of degree measure to radian measure of standard
angles

𝛳𝜊 𝛳𝒸
30 𝜋
6
45 𝜋
4
60 𝜋
3
90 𝜋
2
180 𝜋

270 3𝜋
2
360 2𝜋

56 | P a g e
IV. Negative Angle:
Y-axis

𝜃 X-axis

−𝜃

Definition: The angle is said to be negative if it is measured in the clock-wise

direction.
V. Sign Convention:-

S A II I

T C III IV

1. A - All trigonometric ratios are positive

2. S – Sine ratio is positive
3. T – Tangent ratio is positive
4. C – Cosine ratio is positive
Table for values of six trigonometric ratios of 00 , 300, 450, 600, 900 , 1800.

𝜃 00         180 0 ( )
Ratios 300   450   600   900  
6 4 3 2
1 1 3
sin𝜃 0 2 2 2 1 0
3 1 1
cos𝜃 1 2 2 2 0 -1
1 3
tan𝜃 0 3 1 ∞ 0
1
co𝑡𝜃 ∞ 3 1 3 0 ∞
2
sec𝜃 1 3 2 2 ∞ -1
cosec𝜃 ∞ 2 2 2
3 1 ∞

57 | P a g e
Content of the Compound Angle and Allied angle:
Compound angle:
Definition: The angle obtained by addition or subtraction of given angles is called compound
angle.
For e.g. A+B, A-B are called compound angles
e. g. A = 45, B = 30 then
A + B = 45 + 30 = 75 and
A  B = 45  30 = 15 are compound angles.
Trigonometric ratios of compound angles (Without proof) :
1) sin (A + B) = sin A  cos B + cos A  sin B
2) sin (A  B) = sin A  cos B  cos A sin B
3) cos (A + B) = cos A  cos B  sin A  sin B
4) cos (A  B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
tan A + tan B
5) tan (A + B) =
1  tan A  tan B
tan A  tan B
6) tan (A  B) =
1 + tan A  tan B

SOLVED EXAMPLES:
Without using calculator, find the value of
1) sin 15 2) cos 75
Solution : 1) 15 = 45  30
 sin 15 = Sin (45  30)
= sin 45  cos 30  cos 45  sin 30
1 3  1 1
=     
 2 2   2 2
3 1
= 
2 2 2 2
√𝟑−𝟏
sin 15=
𝟐√𝟐

2) 75= 45 + 30

cos 75 = cos (45+30)
= cos 45  cos 30  sin 45  sin 30
1 3  1 1
=     
 2 2   2 2

58 | P a g e
 3 1
= 
2 2 2 2
√3−1
 cos 75 =
2 √2
1 1
3) If tan A = , tan B = find tan (A + B)
2 3
tan A + tan B
Solution : tan (A + B) =
1  tan A  tan B
1 1
+
2 3
=
1 1
1 
2 3
1 1
+
2 3
=
1
1
6
3+2
6 5
= =
61 5
6
=1
3 8 77
4) If tan (x + y) = and tan (x  y) = then show that tan 2x =
4 15 36
Solution :
As 2x = (x + y) + (x  y)
 L.H.S.= tan 2x = tan[(x + y) + (x  y)]
tan (x + y) + tan (x  y)
=
1  tan (x + y)  tan (x  y)
3 8
+
4 15
=
3 8
1 
4 15
3 8
+
4 15
=
24
1
60
45 + 32
60
=
60  24
60

59 | P a g e
 77
= = R.H.S.
36

–3 20
5) If cos A = , sin B = , where A and B are the angles in the third and second quadrant
5 29
respectively, find tan (A + B)

3 20
Given : cos A = sin B =
5 29

4 20
tan A = tan B =
3 21
As A is in the third quadrant, tan A is positive and B is in the second quadrant, tan B is
negative.

4  20
tan A = tan B =
3 21
tan A + tan B
tan (A + B) =
1  tan A  tan B
4  20 4 20
+  –
3  21  3 21
= =
4  20 80
1–   1+
3 21  63
84 - 60
63
=
63 + 80
63
24
tan (A + B) = OR 0.168
143

12 –4
6) If ∠A and ∠B are both obtuse angles and sin A = and cos B = , find sin (A + B).
13 5
Solution : Given
12 –4
sin A = cos B =
13 5

60 | P a g e
 5 3
cos A = sin B =
13 5
∵ A and B are obtuse (More than 90º and less than 180º)
 A is the second quadrant, cos A = –5/13
B is the second quadrant, sin B = 3/5
–5 3
cos A = sin B =
13 5
sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
12 – 4 – 5 3
=  × +  
13  5   13  5
– 48 – 15
= +
65 65
– 48 – 15 −63
= = 65
65

EXERCISE:
1. Without using calculator, find the value
1) cos 105 2) tan 75 3) tan 15
4) sin 75 5) tan 105 6) sin 105
tan 85  tan 40
2. Evaluate without using calculator
1 + tan 85  tan 40
1  tan 2  tan  cos 3
3. Prove that =
1 + tan 2  tan  cos 
1 1  3
4. If tan A = , tan B = , where 0 < A < ,  < B < , find sin (A + B)
3 4 2 2
–5 7
5. If sin = , cos  = and ,  lies in the third quadrant, find sin ( - )
13 25
5 4
6. If A and B both obtuse angles and sin A = and cos B = , then find
13 5
sin (A + B) and the quadrant of angle A + B.
5 4
7. If A and B are obtuse angles such that sin A = and cos B = , find tan (A + B).
13 5

61 | P a g e
Allied Angles
If the sum or difference of the measures of two angles is either zero or is an integral multiple of

90, that is  n  then these angles are called Allied angles.
2
For any angle , let  be It’s allied angle then
 
+ = n   = n  –  allied angle of 
2 2
 
and  –  = n    = n  +  allied angle of .
2 2

For any angle of  ; n    are allied angle of .
2
In general the above results can be written as
If n is an even integer

     
sin n    sin  cos n   =  cos 
 2   2 
If n is an odd integer
     
sin n   =  cos  cos n   =  sin 
 2   2 
  
The algebraic sign is settled down by knowing the quadrant in which the angle n   lies.
 2 
Note that sin n = 0

cos n =  1 If n is odd integer

cos n = 1 If n is even integer
  3 
For the angles    i.e. (90 + ) and    i.e. (270  )
2  2 
Make the changes as follows :
sin  cos, tan  cot, sec  cosec and for the angles (  )
i.e. (180  ) and (2  ) i.e. (360  ) there is no change in trigonometric ratios.
i.e. sin  sin, cos  cos etc.
 The algebraic sign is settled down by knowing the quadrant in which the angle lies .
3 
e.g. sin    = ?
2 
3  3 
For angle    sin changes to cos and angle    lies in IIIrd - quadrant and in IIIrd
 2   2 
quadrant sin ratio is negative.

62 | P a g e
 3 
 sin    =  cos 
2 
Solved Examples:
1) Without using calculator, find the value of i) sin ( 765) ii) sec (3660)
Solution:
i) sin ( 765)
sin (– ) = – sin 
=  sin (765)
=  sin (8  90 + 45)
=  sin 45

ii) sec (3660)

= sec (40  90 + 60)
= + sec 60 = 2

tan 66 + tan 69
2) Evaluate :
1  tan 66  tan 69
tan A + tan B
Solution: ∵ = tan (A + B)
1  tan A  tan B
tan 66 + tan 69
 = tan (66 + 69)
1  tan 66  tan 69
= tan (135)
= tan (90 + 45)
=  cot 45 tan (90 + ) =  cot 
=1

3) Without using calculator, find the value of

sin 420 cos 390 + cos ( 300) sin ( 330)

63 | P a g e
 Solution : Given sin 420 cos 390 + cos ( 300) sin ( 330)
3
sin (420) = sin (4  90 + 60) = sin 60 =
2
cos (390) = cos (360 + 30)
3
= cos (4  90 + 30) = cos 30 =
2
cos ( 300) = cos (300)
1
= cos (3  90 + 30) = sin 30 =
2
sin ( 330) =  sin (330) =  sin (360  30)
=  sin (90  4  30) =  ( sin 30)
1
= sin 30 =
2
∴ sin 420 cos 390 + cos ( 300) sin ( 330)
3 3 1 1
=  +
2 2 2 2
3 1
= +
4 4
4
= =1
4

EXERCISE:
1) Without using calculator, find the value of
1) sin 210 2) cos 330 3) sec2( 765)
4) cot ( 710) 5) cosec ( 960)

2) Without using calculator, find the value of

sec2 (135)
1)
cos ( 240)  2 sin (930)
2) Prove that : cos (570)  sin (510) + sin ( 330)  cos ( 390) = 0
3) tan (585)  cot ( 495)  cot (405)  tan ( 495)
4) sin (150)  tan (315) + cos (300) + sec2 (3660)
5) cos ( 1125) + tan ( 945) + cos (495)
6) cos (225) cos (675) + sin (585) sin (315)
7) sin 660 sin 480  cos 120 sin 330
Multiple Angles:
Trigonometric ratios of multiple angle:
The integral multiple of A i.e. 2A, 3A, 4A, ........... are called multiple angles of A.

64 | P a g e
e.g. If A = 60 then 2A = 120, 3A = 180, 4A = 240 etc.
Trigonometric ratios of 2:
1) sin 2 = 2 sin   cos 
2 tan 
=
1 + tan2
2) cos 2 = cos2  sin2
= 1  2 sin2
= 2 cos2  1
1−𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 𝜃
= 1+𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 𝜃
From the above we can deduce

1  cos 2 = 2 sin2

1 + cos 2 = 2 cos2

2 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
3) tan 2 = 1−𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 𝜃
Trigonometric ratios of 3:
1) sin 3 = 3 sin   4 sin3
2) cos 3 = 4 cos3  3 cos 
3 tan   tan3
3) tan 3 =
1  3 tan2
SOLVED EXAMPLES:
1) If sin A = 0.4, find sin 3A
Solution: Given sin A= 0.4
sin 3A =3 sin A  4 sin3 A
=3(0.4)  4(0.4)3
= 1.2  0.256
= 0.944
1
2) If cos A = , find the value of cos 3A
2
1
Solution: Given cos A =
2
cos 3A=4 cos A  3 cos A
3

3
1 1
=4    3  
2 2
1 3
=4   
8 2

65 | P a g e
 1 3
= 
2 2
2
= =1
2
3) If A = 30º, verify that
i) sin 2A = 2 sin A  cos A
1 – tan2 A
ii) cos 2A =
1 + tan2 A
Solution: i) L.H.S. = sin 2A
= sin( 2×30º) = sin 60º
3
=
2
R.H.S. = 2 sin A  cos A
= 2 sin 30º  cos 30º
1  3 3
= 2  =
2  2  2
 L.H.S. = R.H.S.
ii) L.H.S. = cos 2A
= cos 2(30º)
= cos 60º
1
=
2
1 – tan2 A
R.H.S. =
1 + tan2 A
1 – tan2 30º
=
1 + tan2 30º
 1 2
1– 
 3
=
 1 2
1+ 
 3
1
=
2
 L.H.S. =R.H.S.

sin 4 + sin 2
4) Prove that : = tan 2
1 + cos 2 + cos 4
sin 4 + sin 2
Solution :Consider L.H.S. =
1 + cos 2 + cos 4
sin 4 = 2 sin 2  cos 2 1 + cos 4 = 2 cos2 2

66 | P a g e
 2 sin 2  cos 2 + sin 2
L.H.S. =
2 cos2 2 + cos 2
sin 2 (2 cos 2 + 1)
=
cos 2 (2 cos 2 + 1)
sin 2
=
cos 2
= tan 2
= R.H.S.
EXERCISE:
1) If cos  = 0.4, find cos 3
2) If sin A = 0.4, find cos 2A using multiple angle formula
1
3) If sin A = , find sin 3A.
2
3
4) If sin A = , find the value of sin 2A.
5
5) If A = 60 verify the result sin 3A = 3 sin A  4 sin3 A
sin 2 + cos 
6) Prove that = cot 
1  cos 2 + sin 
1 + sin 2A + cos 2A
7) Prove : = cot A
1 + sin 2A – cos 2A
Submultiple Angles:
A A A
Let A be the given angle then , , , ......... are called submultiples angles of A.
2 3 4
A A A
e.g. If A = 60 then = 30, = 20, = 15 ...... etc.
2 3 4
Trigonometric ratios of any angle in terms of its sub-multiple angle:
𝜃 𝜃
1) cos  = cos2 ( 2 )  sin2 ( 2 )
𝜃
=2 cos2 ( 2 )  1
𝜃
= 1  2 sin2 ( 2 )

𝜃 𝜃
2) sin  = 2 sin ( 2 ) cos ( 2 )

𝜃
2 𝑡𝑎𝑛( )
3) tan  = 2
𝜃
1−𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 ( )
2
Solved Examples:
A 1
1) If tan   = , find the value of cos A.
 2 3
Solution : We know that

67 | P a g e
 1 – tan2 A/2
cos A =
1 + tan2 A/2
2
1 – (1/ 3)
= 2
1 + (1/ 3)
1
1–
3
=
1
1+
3
3–1
3
=
3+1
3
2
=
4
1
=
2

sin  
2) Prove that = tan
1 + cos  2
sin 
Solution : L.H.S.=
1 + cos 
2 sin /2  cos /2 sin  = 2 sin /2  cos /2
=
2 cos2/2 1 + cos  = 2 cos2/2
2 sin /2  cos /2
=
2 cos /2  cos /2
sin /2
=
cos /2
𝜃
= tan (2 )
EXERCISE:
𝜃
1) If  = 45, find the value of cos ( 2 )
 1
2) If tan = find the value of sin 
2 3
1 + sin   cos 
3) Prove that = tan /2
1 + sin  + cos 
A
1 + tan
cos A 2
4) Prove that =
1  sin A A
1  tan
2

68 | P a g e
Factorization and De- Factorization formulae
Significance: De-factorization formulae are used to express product of trigonometric functions
to sum or difference and Factorization formulae are used to express sum or difference of
trigonometric functions to its product.
Content of the sub-topic:
Factorization:
Factorization formulae (Conversion of sum or difference into product)
C + D C  D
1) sin C + sin D = 2 sin   cos  
 2   2 
C + D C  D
2) sin C  sin D = 2 cos    sin  
 2   2 
C + D C  D
3) cos C + cos D = 2 cos    cos  
 2   2 
 C + D D  C
4) cos C  cos D = 2 sin    sin  2 
 2   
OR
 C + D C  D
cos C  cos D = - 2 sin    sin  2 
 2   
Solved Examples:
1. Express into product form:
a. sin 20 + sin 40
b. sin 70 − sin 50
c. cos 3𝜃 + cos 2𝜃
d. cos 15 − cos 75
Solution:
40+20 40−20
a. sin 20 + sin 40 = 2 sin ( ) cos ( ) = 2 sin 30 cos 10
2 2
70+50 70−50
b. sin 70 − sin 50 = 2 cos ( ) sin ( ) = 2 cos 60 sin 10
2 2
3𝜃+2𝜃 3𝜃−2𝜃 5𝜃 𝜃
c. cos 3𝜃 + cos 2𝜃 = 2 cos ( ) cos ( ) = 2 cos ( 2 ) cos ( 2 )
2 2
15+75 75−15
d. cos 15 − cos 75 = 2 sin ( ) sin ( ) = 2 sin 45 sin 30
2 2
sin 3A  sin A
2. Prove that : = tan A
cos 3A + cos A
sin 3A  sin A
L.H.S. =
cos 3A + cos A

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  C + D C  D
sin C  sin D = 2 cos    sin  2 
 2   
3A + A 3A  A
2 cos    sin  
 2   2 
=
3A + A 3A  A
2 cos    cos  
 2   2 
C + D C  D
cos C + cos D = 2 cos    cos  
 2   2 
4A 2A
2 cos    sin  
2 2
=
4A 2A
2 cos   cos  
2 2
2 cos 2A  sin A
=
2 cos 2A  cos A
sin A
=
cos A
= tan A
= R.H.S.

sin 4A + sin 5A + sin 6A

3. Prove that = tan 5A
cos 4A + cos 5A + cos 6A
sin 4A + sin 5A + sin 6A
Solution : L.H.S. =
cos 4A + cos 5A + cos 6A
Rearranging the terms
sin 4A + sin 6A + sin 5A
=
cos 4A + cos 6A + cos 5A
4A + 6A 4A  6A
2 sin   cos   + sin 5A
 2   2 
=
4A + 6A 4A  6A
2 cos   cos   + cos 5A
 2   2 
10A  2A
2 sin   cos   + sin 5A
 2   2 
=
10A  2A
2 cos   cos   + cos 5A
 2   2 
2 sin 5A  cos ( A) + sin 5A
=
2 cos 5A cos ( A) + cos 5A
sin 5A (2 cos A + 1)
=
cos 5A (2 cos A + 1)

70 | P a g e
 sin 5A
=
cos 5A
= tan 5A
= R.H.S.

cos 2A + 2 cos 4A + cos 6A

4. Prove that = cos A  tan 3A  sin A
cos A + 2 cos 3A + cos 5A
cos 2A + 2 cos 4A + cos 6A
Solution : L.H.S. =
cos A + 2 cos 3A + cos 5A
Rearranging the terms
(cos 2A + cos 6A) + 2 cos 4A
=
(cos A + cos 5A) + 2 cos 3A
C + D C  D
cos C + cos D = 2 cos   cos  2 
 2   
2A + 6A 2A  6A
2 cos   cos   + 2 cos 4A
 2   2 
=
A + 5A A  5A
2 cos   cos   + 2 cos 3A
 2   2 
8A  4A
2 cos   cos   + 2 cos 4A
2  2 
=
6A  4A
2 cos   cos   + 2 cos 3A
2  2 
2 cos 4A  cos ( 2A) + 2 cos 4A
=
2 cos 3A cos ( 2A) + 2 cos 3A
Taking 2 cos 4A common from numerator and 2 cos 3A common from denominator.
2 cos 4A (cos 2A + 1)
= cos ( ) = cos 
2 cos 3A (cos 2A + 1)
cos 4A
=
cos 3A
Put 4A = 3A + A
cos (3A + A)
=
cos 3A
cos (A + B) = cos A  cos B  sin A sin B
cos 3A  cos A  sin 3A  sin A
=
cos 3A
cos 3A cos A sin 3A sin A
= 
cos 3A cos 3A
sin 
= cos A  tan 3A  sin A = R.H.S. = tan 
cos 

71 | P a g e
EXERCISE:
1) Express into product form and evaluate.
1) sin 100 + sin 50 2) sin 80 – cos 70 3) sin 80  sin 50
sin 8 + sin 2
2) Prove that : = tan 5
cos 8 + cos 2
sin 7x + sin x
3) Prove that = sin 2x  cos 2x cot x
cos 5x  cos 3x
sin A + sin 3A + sin 5A
4) Prove that = tan 3A
cos A + cos 3A + cos 5A

sin A + 2 sin 3A + sin 5A

5) Prove that = cos 2A  cot 5A sin 2A
sin 3A + 2 sin 5A + sin 7A

sin 5A + 2 sin 7A + sin 9A

6) Prove that = sin 2A + cos 2A tan 5A
cos 3A + 2 cos 5A + cos 7A
sin A + 2 sin 2A + sin 3A
7) Prove that = tan (2A)
cos A + 2 cos 2A + cos 3A

Defactorization formula
(Conversion of product into sum or difference)
1) 2 sin A  cos B = sin (A + B) + sin (A  B)
2) 2 cos A  sin B = sin (A + B)  sin (A  B)
3) 2 cos A  cos B = cos (A + B) + cos (A  B)
4) 2 sin A  sin B = cos (A  B)  cos (A + B)
Solved Examples:
1. Express as sum or difference of trigonometric functions : 2 cos 75 cos 15
Solution:
Given 2 cos 75 cos 15
2 cos A  cos B = cos (A + B) + cos (A  B)
= cos (75 + 15) + cos (75  15)
= cos (90) + cos (60)
1 1
=0+ =
2 2
1
2. Prove that cos 20  cos 40  cos 60  cos 80 =
16

Solution : L.H.S.= cos 20  cos 40  cos 60  cos 80
1
= cos 20  cos 40   cos 80
2
Multiply and divide by 2

72 | P a g e
 1 1
=  {2 cos 20  cos 40} cos 80
2 2
2 cos A  cos B = cos (A + B) + cos (A  B)
1
= {cos (20 + 40) + cos (20  40)} cos 80
4
1 1
= {cos (60) + cos ( 20)} cos 80 cos 60 =
4 2
1 1 
=  + cos 20 cos 80
4 2 
1 1 
=  cos 80 + cos 20  cos 80
4 2 
Multiply and divide by 2

1 1 1 
=  2  cos 80 + 2 cos 20  cos 80
4 2 2 

2 cos A  cos B = cos (A + B) + cos (A  B)

1
cos 80 + cos (20 + 80) + cos (20  80)}
8{
=
1
= {cos 80 + cos 100 + cos ( 60)} cos ( ) = cos 
8
1
= {cos 80 + cos (180  80) + cos 60} cos (180  ) =  cos 
8
1
= {cos 80  cos 80 + cos 60}
8
1 1
= {cos 60} cos 60 =
8 2
1 1 1
=  = = R.H.S.
8 2 16
3
3. Prove that sin 20  sin 40  sin 60  sin 80 =
16
Solution : L.H.S. =sin 20  sin 40  sin 60  sin 80
3
= sin 20  sin 40   sin 80
2
Multiply and divide by 2
3 1
=  {2 sin 20  sin 40} sin 80
2 2
2 sin A  sin B= cos (A  B)  cos (A + B)
3
= {cos (20  40)  cos (20 + 40} sin 80
4

73 | P a g e
 3
= {cos ( 20)  cos 60} sin 80
4
3 1
= cos 20   sin 80 cos ( ) = cos 
4  2
3 1 
= cos 20  sin 80  sin 80
4  2 

Multiply and divide by 2

3 1 1 
=  2 cos 20  sin 80  2  sin 80 
4 2 2 

2 cos A  sin B = sin (A + B)  sin (A  B)

3
sin (20 + 80)  sin (20  80)  sin 80}
8 {
=

3
sin 100  sin ( 60)  sin 80}
8 {
=

3
sin (180  80) + sin 60º  sin 80} sin ( ) =  sin 
8 {
=

3
sin 80 + sin 60  sin 80}
8 {
=

3
8 {
= sin 60}

3 3 3
= = = R.H.S.
8 2 16

EXERCISE:
1) Express the following as sum or difference of trigonometric functions :
a) 2 sin 70 cos 30 b) 2 sin 60 cos 20 c) sin 11A . sin A
2) Prove that 8 sin 20  sin 40  cos 10 = 3
3
3) Prove that cos 10  cos 50  cos 70 =
8
3
4) Prove that cos 15  cos 30  cos 60  cos 75 =
16
1
5) Prove that sin 10  sin 30  sin 50  sin 70 =
16

Inverse Trigonometric Ratios.

Significance: Inverse Trigonometric Ratios are used to find the angle of a given trigonometric
function.

74 | P a g e
Definition
If sin  = x then  is called sine inverse of x and is denoted by  = sin1 x
Thus, if sin  = x then  = sin – 1 x
Similarly If cos  = x then  = cos1x
If tan  = x then  = tan1x
If cot  = x then  = cot1x
If sec  = x then  = sec1x
If cosec  = x then  = cosec1x
The functions sin1x, cos1x, tan1 x, cot1x and sec1x and cosec1 x are called inverse
trigonometric functions.
1
Note that sin1x 
sin x
Principal Value of Inverse Trigonometric Ratios:
Consider
1 1
sin 45 = sin1   = 45
2  2
1 1
sin 135 = sin1   = 135
2  2
1 1
sin 405 = sin1   = 405
2  2
Thus we have
1
sin1   = 45, 135, 405, ……..
 2
1
sin1   is not unique valued function, but it is multivalued function.
 2
From application point of view the smallest of these values is important.This value is called
the principal value.
1 
Thus the principal value of sin1   = 45 or
 2 4
Function Range of
principal value
−1 π π
sin 𝑥 [− , ]
2 2

cos −1 𝑥 [0 , π]
tan−1 𝑥 [−
π π
, 2]
2

Properties of inverse trigonometric function:

75 | P a g e
Property I:
1) sin (sin1 x) = x 1) sin1 (sin ) = 
2) cos (cos1 x) = x 2) cos1 (cos ) = 
3) tan (tan1 x) = x 3) tan1 (tan ) = 
4) cot (cot1 x) = x 4) cot1 (cot ) =  ;
5) sec (sec1 x) = x 5) sec1 (sec ) =  ;
6) cosec (cosec1 x) = x 6) cosec1 (cosec ) = 

Property II:
1
1) sin1 x = cosec1  
x
1
2) cosec1x = sin1  
x
1
3) cos1x = sec1  
x
1
4) sec1x = cos1  
x
1
5) tan1x = cot1  
x
1
6)cot1x=tan1  
x
Property III:
1) sin1( x) =  sin1x
2) cos1( x) =   cos1x
3) tan1( x) =  tan1x
4) cot1 ( x)=  cot1 (x)
5) sec1 ( x)=  sec1 (x)
6) cosec1 ( x)=  cosec1 (x)
Property IV:

1) sin1x + cos1x =
2

2) tan1x + cot1x =
2

3) sec1x + cosec1x =
2
Property V:
1) If x > 0, y > 0 and xy < 1 then
x+y
tan1 x + tan1 y = tan1  
1  xy

76 | P a g e
 2) If x > 0, y > 0 and xy > 1 then
x+y
tan1 x + tan1 y = tan1  +
1  xy
3) If x > 0, y > 0 then
xy
tan1 x  tan1 y = tan1  
1 + xy

SOLVED EXAMPLES:
Find the principal value of
 1  1
1) sin1   2) cos   sin1  
2  2 2
Solution:
1)
 1
Let sin1   =   sin1 x =  then x = sin 
2 
1
 = sin 
2
1
  sin  = cos (90 + ) =  sin 
2
1
 cos (90 + ) = cos 60 cos 60 =
2
⟹ 90 + 𝜃 = 60
  =  30
 1  
Principal value of sin1   =
2 6
 1
2) cos   sin1  
2 2
𝜋 𝜋
= cos [ 2 − 6 ]
𝜋 1
=cos ( 3 ) = 2
1  1 
3) Prove that tan1   + tan1   =
2  3 4
1 1
Solution :L.H.S. = tan1   + tan1  
2 3
 12 + 13 
= tan1  
1   
1 1
 2 3

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  12 + 13 
= tan1  
1   1
 6
3 +6 2
= tan1  
 
6  1
 6 
5/6
= tan1  
5/6
= tan1 (1)

= 45 =
4
= R.H.S.
1 1 9
4) Prove that tan1   + tan1   = cot1  
 
7  
13 2
1 1
Solution : L.H.S. = tan1   + tan1  
 
7 13
We know that If x > 0, y > 0 and xy < 1
x+y
then tan1x + tan1y = tan1 
1  xy
1 1 1
Here x = > 0, y = > 0, xy = <1
7 13 91

 7 13 
1 1
tan1   + tan1   = tan1  
+
 
1  
1
7 13 1   
1 1
 7 13
 17 + 13
1

1  
= tan
1   1
 91
 1391+ 7 
= tan1  
 91  1 
 91 
20
= tan1  
90
2 1
= tan1   tan1(x) = cot1  
9 x

78 | P a g e
 9
= cot1  
2
= R.H.S.
5) Prove that tan (1) + tan (2) + tan1(3) = 
1 1

Solution : L.H.S. = tan1(1) + tan1(2) + tan1(3)

= {tan1(1) + tan1(2)} + tan1(3)
We know that x > 0, y > 0 and xy > 1 then
x+ y
tan1x + tan1 y = tan1  +
1  xy
Here x= 1 > 0, y = 2 > 0, xy = 2 > 1
= {tan1(1) + tan1(2)} + tan1(3)
 1+2 
= tan1   +  + tan1(3)
1  (1) (2)
1 + 2
= tan1   +  + tan1(3)
1  2
 3 
= tan1   +  + tan1(3)
  1
= tan1( 3) +  + tan1(3) tan1 ( x) =  tan1 x
=  tan1(3) +  + tan1(3)
=  = R.H.S.
4 12 33
6) Prove that cos1   + cos1   = cos1  
5 13 65
Solution :
4 12
Let cos1   = A cos1   = B
5 13
4 12
cos A =  cos B =
5 13

3 5
sin A = sin B =
5 13
cos (A + B) = cos A  cos B - sin A  sin B
4 12 3 5 48 15 48 - 15
=  -  = - =
5 13 5 13 65 65 65

79 | P a g e
 33
cos (A + B) =  
65
33
A + B = cos1  
65
4 12 33
 cos1 5 + cos1 13 = cos1 65
     

4 8 84

7) Prove that sin1   + sin1   = sin1  
5 17 85

Solution :

4 8
Let sin1   = A sin1   = B
5 17
4 8
 sin A =  sin B =
5 17

3 15
cos A = cos B =
5 17

Now, sin (A + B) = sin A  cos B + cos A  sin B

4 15 3 8
=  + 
5 17 5 17
60 24 60 + 24
= + =
85 85 85
84
sin (A + B) =
85
84
A + B = sin –1  
85
4 8 84
 sin1   + sin1   = sin1  
5 17 85

80 | P a g e
 4 5 63
8) Prove that cos1   - sin1   = cos1  
5 13 65

Solution:
4 5
Let cos1   = A sin1   = B
5 13
4 5
 cos A =  sin B =
5 13

3 12
sin A = cos B =
5 13

Now, cos (A - B) = cos A  cos B + sin A  sin B

4 12 3 5
=  + 
5 13 5 13
48 15 48 + 15
= + =
65 65 65
63
cos (A - B) =
65
63
A – B = cos1  
65
4 5 63
 cos1   - sin1   = cos1  
5 13 65

Exercise:
1) Find the principal value of:

−1
1) sin [cos −1 ( 2 )]
𝜋 1
2) sin [ 2 − cos −1 (2)]
−1 1
3) cos −1 ( 2 ) − sin−1 (2)
3 3
4) sin−1 (5) + cos −1 (5)
√3
5) sec [cos −1 ( 2 )]
5
6) sin [cos −1 ( )]
13

81 | P a g e
 1 5 𝜋
2) Show that tan−1 (11) + tan−1 (6) = 4
−1 2 −1 7 1
3) Show that tan (11) + tan (24) = tan−1 (2)
1 2
4) Prove that tan−1 (4) + tan−1 (9) = cot −1 (2)
4 3 27
5) Prove that cos −1 (5) + tan−1 (5) = tan−1 (11)
4 12 63
6) Show that cos −1 (5) − cos −1 (13) = cos −1 (65)
3 5 56
7) Prove that sin−1 (5) − cos −1 (13) = cos −1 (65)
 2x 
8) Prove that 2 tan1x = tan1  
1  x2
3 8 77
9) Prove that sin1   + sin1   = sin1  
 
5  
17 85
20 4  24 
10) Prove that cos1   - cos1   = sin1  
29 5 145

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87 | P a g e
 Unit 3
Co-ordinate Geometry
Course Outcome: Solve basic engineering problems under given conditions of straight lines.
Unit outcome:
a. Calculate angle between given two straight lines.
b. Formulate equation of straight lines related to given engineering problems.
c. Identify perpendicular distance from the given point to the line.
d. Calculate perpendicular distance between the given two parallel lines.

Introduction: The straight line is one of the most widely used concepts in engineering field. The
equation of Straight line and the different concepts related to it i.e. slope, angle between lines are
very much essential in understanding the relationship between two variables.

Straight Line- First degree equation in x and y represents a straight line.

Slope of a line: It is tangent ratio of an angle made by the line with positive X-axis.
i.e If  is the angle made by the line with positive X-axis then tan  is slope of line.
Slope is also called the gradient of the line and it is denoted by m.
m= tan 
1
For example: If  = 30, Slope (m) = tan 30 =
3
Slope of a Line Passing through Two Points:
If the given line is passing through two given points A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2) then from Fig.

Considering ABC, we get

BC y2  y1
tan  = =
AC x2  x1
y1  y2
 m=
x1  x2
difference in y co-ordinate
Slope = m =
difference in x co-ordinate

88 | P a g e
Standard Forms of Equations of Straight Lines:
1) Slope-point form : Equation of line having slope ‘m’ and passing through a point A (x1, y1)
is y  y1=m(x  x1)
2) Slope-intercept form : The equation of a line with slope m and whose y intercept ‘c’
is y = mx + c

3) Two point -intercept form (Double intercept form): The equation of a line making
intercepts a and b on the x-axis and y-axis respectively is
x y
+ =1
a b
4) Two point form: The equation of line passing through the point A(x1, y1) and
y  y1 x  x1
B(x2, y2) is given by =
y1  y2 x1  x2
5) General form : The general equation of straight line is Ax + By + C=0
where A, B and C are real number such that A and B are not simultaneously zero.
𝐴 𝐶
we can express Ax + By + C = 0 in slope- intercept form as y = − 𝐵 𝑥 − 𝐵
A C C
Slope = , y-intercept = and x-intercept =
B B A
SOLVED EXAMPLES:
1) Find the slope of a line through points ( 1,  2) and ( 3, 8).
Solution : Let the given points A( 1,  2) = A(x1, y1) and B( 3, 8) = B(x2, y2)
y2  y1
 Slope of AB =
x2  x1
8  ( 2)
m=
 3  ( 1)
10
=
2
Slope = m =  5
2) Find the slope of line whose inclination is 60.
Solution : Given :  = 60
We know that Slope of line whose inclination is  is
m = tan 
 m = tan 60
 m= 3
3
3) Find the equation of line passing through (3,  4) and having slope .
2
3
Solution : Given Slope = (m) =
2
and (x1, y1) = (3,  4)

89 | P a g e
 By using equation of line in slope-point form.
y  y1 = m(x  x1)
3
 y  ( 4) = (x  3)
2
 2(y + 4) = 3(x  3)
 2y + 8 = 3x  9
 3x  2y  9  8 = 0
 3x  2y  17 = 0

4) Find the equation of straight line passes through the points (3, 5) and (4, 6).
Solution : Equation of line is,
y – y1 x – x1
=
y1 – y2 x1 – x2
y–5 x–3
=
5–6 3–4
y–5 x–3
=
–1 –1
x–y+2 = 0

5) Find the equation of the line whose x-intercept is 3 and y intercept is 4.

Solution : Givenx-intercept = a = 3
y-intercept = b = 4
By using equation of line in two intercept form.
x y
 + =1
a b
x y
 + =1
3 4
4x + 3y
 =1
12
 4x + 3y = 12
 4x + 3y  12 = 0
x y
6) Find slope and intercepts of the line  = 2
4 3
Solution: Given equation of line is
x y
 =2
4 3
3x  4y
=2
12
3x  4y = 24
3x  4y  24 = 0

90 | P a g e
 −𝐴 3 3
Slope = m = = =
𝐵 4 4
−𝐶  ( 24) 24
x-intercept = 𝐴 = = =8
3 3
−𝐶  ( 24)
y-intercept= 𝐵 =
4
 24
= =6
4
Exercise:
1) Find the slopes of line passing through points
1) (3, 4) and (7, 10)
2) (3, 4) and ( 4, 6)

2) Find the slope of a line whose inclination is

1) 90 2) 60
3) Find slope and intercepts of a line
x y 1
1) 5x  4y + 7 = 0. 2)  = 3) 3x  4y + 5 = 0
2 3 4
4) Find the equation of a line
1) Passing through (1,7) and having slope 2 units.
–3
2) With slope and passing through the point (1, 2).
2
4
3) Passing through (2, 5) and slope .
5
4) Passing through (4, –5) having slope –2/3.
1
5) Passing through (5, 6) and slope .
2
5) Find the equation of a straight line passing through points.
a) (3, 4) and (5, 6)
b) (1,  1) and (3, 5)
c) (4, 3) and (3,  5)
d) (7, 4) and (5, 8)
Angle between Two Straight Lines:
If m1 and m2 are slopes of the two lines then the angle between two lines is
 m1  m2 
 = tan1 
1 + m1  m2 
Deduction:
1. If = 0 then lines are parallel
 m1  m2 
0 = tan1 
1 + m1  m2 

91 | P a g e
  m1  m2 
tan 0 =  
1 + m1  m2 
 m1  m2 
0= 
1 + m1  m2 
m1 = m2
2 If = 90 then lines are perpendicular
 m1  m2 
90 = tan1 
1 + m1  m2 
 m1  m2 
tan 90 =  
1 + m1  m2 
 m1  m2 
∞= 
1 + m1  m2
⸫ 1+ m1× m2 = 0
m1× m2 = – 1
Condition for parallel and perpendicular Lines:
1) Two lines are parallel if their slopes are equal .i. e. m1 = m2 and converse is also true.
2) Condition for two lines to be perpendicular : Two lines are perpendicular if their product
of slopes is  1. i.e. m1  m2 = – 1 and converse is also true
Solved Examples:
1) Find the acute angle between the lines 3x  2y + 4 = 0 and 2x  3y  7 = 0.
Solution : Given equation of lines
L1 : 3x  2y + 4 = 0
3 3
 Slope m1 = =
2 2
L2 : 2x  3y  7 = 0
2 2
 Slope m2 = =
3 3
Let ‘’ be the acute angle between the lines
 m1  m2 
Then tan  =  
1 + m1  m2

 32  23  (9 6 4)
=  = 
1 +    1 +1 
3 2
 2 3
5
6
5
=   = 
 2  12
5
tan  =
12

92 | P a g e
 5
 = tan1  
12

2) Find the acute angle between the lines 3x  y = 4 and 2x + y = 3.

Solution : Given equation of lines
L1 : 3x  y = 4
L1 : 3x  y  4 = 0
3
 Slope m1 = =3
1
L2 : 2x + y  3 = 0
2
 Slope m2 = =2
1
The acute angle between the line is
 m1  m2 
 = tan1  
1 + m1  m2 
 3  ( 2) 
= tan1  
1 + (3) ( 2)
3 + 2
= tan1  
1  6
5 
= tan1  
 5
= tan1 |  1 |
= tan1 (1)

 = 45 OR =
4
3) Find the angle between the lines 3x – 4y = 420 and 4x + 3y = 420
Solution : Given equations of lines
L1 : 3x  4y  420 = 0
3 3
 Slope m1 = =
4 4
L2 : 4x + 3y  420 = 0
4
 Slope m2 =
3
The acute angle between the two lines is
 m1  m2 
 = tan1  
1 + m1  m2

93 | P a g e
  34  34 
= tan1  
1 +    
3  4 
 4  3 
 3 4 
 +3 
1  4 
= tan
1 + ( 1)
(9 + 16)
 12 
1  
= tan
 11 
 25 
 12 
= tan1  
 0 
= tan1 ()

 = 90 OR  =
2
The given are perpendicular to each other.
4) Show that the lines 2x + 3y  5 = 0 and 4x + 6y  1 = 0 are parallel.
Solution : Let L1 : 2x + 3y  5 = 0
2
Slope of L1 is m1 =
3
And L2 : 4x + 6y  1 = 0
4 2
Slope of L2 is m2 = =
6 3
m1 = m2
 Given lines are parallel.

5) Prove that lines 3x + 4y + 7 = 0 and 28x  21y + 50 = 0 are perpendicular to each other.
Solution : Let L1 : 3x + 4y + 7 = 0
3
 Slope of L1 is m1 =
4
and L2 : 28x  21y + 50 = 0
 28 4
 Slope of L2 is m2 = =
 21 3
3 4
m1  m2 =  =1
4 3
 Given lines are perpendicular.
6) Find the equation of line passing through (2,  3) and parallel to the line
4x  y + 7 = 0.
Solution : Given equation of line is

94 | P a g e
 L1 : 4x  y + 7= 0
 Coefficient of x  4
Slope = m1 = =
Coefficient of y 1
 m1 = 4
Slope of required line is, m2,
The required line is parallel to given line (L1)
 m2 = 4
Also required line passes through (2,  3)
By slope-point form equation of a line is
y  ( 3) = 4(x  2)
 y + 3=4x  8
 4x  y  8  3 = 0
 4x  y  11 = 0
7) Find the equation of line passing through (4, 5) and perpendicular to the line 7x5y420=0.
Solution : Given line is 7x  5y  420 = 0
7 7
It’s slope is m1= =
5 5
Let m2 be the slope of required line, then
m1  m2 =  1 (condition of perpendicular line)
1
 m2 =
7
5
5
 m2 =
7
5
Equation of required line having slope and passing through point
7
(4, 5) is given by
5
y5= (x  4)
7
7(y  5) =  5(x  4)
7y  35 =  5x + 20
5x + 7y  35  20 = 0
 5x + 7y  55 = 0

EXERCISE:
1) Show that the following pairs of lines are parallel.
1) 3x + y  1 = 0, 21x + 7y  2 = 0
2) 2x + 3y + 7 = 0 and 4x + 6y + 2 = 0
3) 7x = 6  3y, 14x = 7  6y

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 4) 5x + 4y  4 = 0, 15x + 12y + 10 = 0
5) x + y  2 = 0, 7x + 7y = 10
2) Show that the following pairs of lines are perpendicular.
1) 5x + 6y  1 = 0, 6x  5y + 3 = 0
2) 2x + 3y = 5, 2x – 3y = 6
3) 2x  y + 1 = 0, x + 2y  2 = 0
4) 7x + y  1 = 0, 3x  21y + 2 = 0
5) 2x + 3y  1 = 0, 3x  2y  5 = 0
3) Find the equation of the straight line
1) Passing through (2, 3) and parallel to the line 2x + 5y  1 = 0.
2) Parallel to 3x  2y + 5 = 0 and passing through the point (5,  6).
3) Passing through (4, 5 ) and parallel to the line 2x  3y 5 = 0.
4) Passing through (3,  1) and parallel to the line x + 2y  4 = 0.
5) Parallel to x  3y  12 = 0 and passing through ( 4, 2).
4) Find the equation of straight line
1) That passes through (3, 4) and perpendicular to the line
3x + 2y + 5 = 0.
2) Passing through (2, 0) and perpendicular to x + y + 3 = 0.
3) Through (4,  5) and perpendicular to the line 3x + 4y + 5 = 0.
4) Through (4, 5) and perpendicular to the line 3x + 5y  20 = 0.
5) Passing through (3,  4 ) and perpendicular to 5x 2y + 3 = 0
5) Find the acute angle between the lines
1) y = 5x + 6 and y = x
2) 2y + x = 1 and x + 3y = 6
3) 2x + 3y + 5 = 0 and x – 2y – 4 = 0
4) x + 3y + 5 = 0 and x  2y  4 = 0
5) x  2y + 5 = 0 and 7x + y  10 = 0
6) 2x + 3y = 13 and 2x – 5y + 7 = 0
5 1
6) If the slopes of two lines are and then the measure of the angle between the lines.
6 11
1
7) Find the acute angle between the lines whose slopes are 3 and .
3
Perpendicular Distance between Point and Line:
If P(x1, y1) is any point and Ax + By + C = 0 is a line, the perpendicular distance of a point P
𝐴𝑥1 + 𝐵𝑦1 +𝐶
from the line is given by | |.
√𝐴2 +𝐵 2
Solved Examples
1) Find the length of the perpendicular on the line 3x + 4y  5 = 0 from the point (3, 4)
Solution : Given line is 3x + 4y  5 = 0
Here A =3, B = 4, C =  5

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 Also, P(x1, y1) = (3, 4)
Length of perpendicular from P(x1, y1) to the line Ax + By + C = 0 is given by
Ax1 + By1 + C 
P=  
 A2 + B2 
3(3) + 4 (4) – 5
=  
 (3)2 + (4)2 
9 + 16  5  20  20
=  =  =  5 
 9 + 16   25 
 P = 4 units.
2) Find the length of perpendicular from the point ( 3,  4) on the line
4 (x + 2) = 3(y  4).
Solution : Given line is 4(x + 2) = 3(y  4)
4x + 8 = 3y  12
4x  3y + 8 + 12 = 0
4x  3y + 20 = 0
Here A = 4, B =  3, C = 20
Also, P(x1, y1) = ( 3,  4)
Now length of perpendicular from P(x1, y1) to the line Ax + By + C = 0 is given by
Ax1 + By1 + C 
P=  
 A2 + B2 
4( 3) + ( 3) ( 4) + 20
=  
 (4)2 + ( 3)2 
 12 + 12 + 20  20  20
=  =  =  5 
 16 + 9   25
 P = 4 units.
Exercise:
Find the length of perpendicular from the given point on to the given line.
1) (3, 4) on the line 3x + 4y = 7.
2) (3,  2) on the line 4x  6y  5 = 0.
3) (3,  2) on the line 6x  4y  5 = 0.
 5
4) 0 ,  on the line 6x + 8y  45 = 0.
 4
5) (1,  1) form 3x  4y + 8 = 0.
6) (5, 4) on the line 2x + y + 6 = 0.

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Perpendicular Distance between Two Parallel Lines
The distance between two parallel lines ax + by + c1 = 0 and ax + by + c2 = 0 is given by
 c2  c1 
d= 2 
 a + b2
Solved Examples:
1) Find the distance between the parallel lines 3x – y + 7 = 0 and 3x – y + 16 = 0.
Solution : 3x – y + 7 = 0 , 3x – y + 16 = 0
a = 3, b = –1, c1 = 7 , c2 = 16
 Distance between two parallel lines is
 c2 – c1   16 – 7 
d= = 
 a2 + b2  32 + (–1)2
 9 
= 
 10
9
d=
10
2) Find the distance between the lines, 3x + 4y + 5 = 0 and 6x + 8y = 25.
Solution : Given lines are
3x + 4y + 5 = 0 6x + 8y = 25
2(3x + 4y + 5) = 2  0  6x + 8y  25 = 0
 6x + 8y + 10 = 0
Here a = 6, b = 8, c1 = 10, c2 =  25
The distance between two parallel line is given by
 c2  c1 
 d=  2 
 a + b2
  25  10    35    35 
=  = = 
 (6)2 + (8)2  36 + 64  100
35
 =
10
7
d = units
2
Exercise:
1) Find the distance between parallel lines.
2) 5x  12y + 1 = 0 and 10x  24y  1 = 0
3) 3x + 2y  6 = 0 and 3x + 2y  12 = 0.
4) 4x  3y + 2 = 0 and 4x + 3y  9 = 0.
5) 5x  2 6 y + 1 = 0 and 5x  2 6 y  10 = 0
6) 5x  12y + 1 = 0 and 10x  24y  1 = 0

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 Unit 4
Mensuration

Course Outcome: Solve the problems based on measurement of regular closed figures and
regular solids.
Unit outcome:
a) Calculate the area of given triangle and circle
b) Determine the area of the given square parallelogram, rhombus and trapezium.
c) compute surface area of given cuboids, sphere, cone and cylinder.
d) Determine volume of given cuboids sphere, cone and cylinder.
Introduction: Mensuration is the branch of mathematics which deals with the study of different
geometrical shapes, their areas and Volumes. It is all about the process of measurement of 2
dimensional and 3 dimensional shapes.
Significance of Mensuration:
It is used to find area and volumes of various shapes
Area:
Area is the quantity that expresses the extent of two dimensional figure or shape, or plane
lamina, in the plane.
Square meter (m2), square centimeter (cm2), square kilometer (km2) are the units of area.
1) Area of any triangle
Let  denote the area of a triangle. Then area of a triangle is
1
i)  = (Base)  (Height)
2
1
ii)  = bc sinA etc, (i.e. Two sides and angles between them are given)
2
iii)  = s(s  a) (s  b) (s  c)
Where a, b and c are sides of triangle and
a+b+c
s = = semi perimeter of triangle.
2
2) Area of an equilateral triangle
Let the sides of equilateral triangle be ‘a’ and for that triangle A = 60.
1 1
 = bc sin A =  a  a sin 60
2 2
1 2 3
= a
2 2
3 2
 = a
4

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3) Area of right angle triangle
1
 = bc  sin A
2
1
= bc sin 90
2
Where A = 90
1
 = bc
2
4) Area of a rectangle
Area =  = Length  Breadth
 = ab
5) Area of square
Here, Length = Breadth
 = a  b = a  a = a2
 = a2

6) Area of parallelogram
 = Base  Height
 = ah

7) Area of a rhombus
Rhombus has all sides equal and diagonals intersect at right
angle.
1
 = AC  BD
2
1
 = (Product of diagonals)
2
8) Area of a trapezium / trapezoid
Trapezium is a quadrilateral in which two sides are parallel.
1
Area =  = [AB + CD]  h
2
1
 = [Sum of parallel sides]  Height
2
9) Area of a circle
The area of a circle having radius r is given by
Area = r2
Also, the circumference of a circle = 2r
OR d (d-diameter)
1
= r2 [  sin ]
2

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10)Area of annulas (Ring)
Let R, r be radius of outer and inner circles then area of annulas is
equal to area of outer circle  area of inner circle.
i.e. R2  r2
= (R2  r2)

Solved Problems:
1. Find the circumference and the area of the circle whose radius is 7.7 cm.
Solution : Hereradius= r = 7.7 cm
Area of the circle is given by
22
 A = r2 = (7.7)2
7
A = 186.34 cm2
Circumference of the circle is
22
2r = 2   7.7 = 48.4 cm
7

2. What is the radius of a circle if its area is 120 cm2 ? Also, find its circumference.
Solution:
Area=120 cm2
Area of the circle is given by,
A = r2
22 2
120 = r
7
7  120
 r2 =
22
2
r = 38.181
r = 6.18 cm
Circumference of the circle is
22
2r = 2   6.18 = 38.845 cm
7
3. The area of rectangle with one side 8 cm is 172 cm2. Find length of the other side.
Solution:
Area = l × b
172 = 8 × b
172
b=
8
b = 21.5 cm

106 | P a g e
Length of the other side is 21.5 cm
4. The length of one side of rectangle is twice the length of its adjacent side. If the perimeter of
rectangle is 60 cms. Find the area of the rectangle.
 
Solution : Let,  ABCD is a rectangle. In  ABCD, AB and BC are adjacent sides.

Let, the length of AB = x cm

Then, the length of BC = 2x cm.
Also, the perimeter of rectangle is 60 cm.
Perimeter = Sum of all sides
60 = x + x + 2x + 2x
60 = 6x
60
 x=
6
 x = 10

Length of AB = x = 10 cm

Length of BC = 2x = 20 cm
Area of rectangle ABCD =Length  Breadth = 20  10 = 200 cm2
The area of the given rectangle is 200 cm2.

5. The area of a rectangular courtyard and is 3000 sq. m. Its sides are in the ratio 6:5. Find the
perimeter of courtyard.
Solution
Area of rectangular courtyard. is = Length × Breadth
Given : l : b = 6 : 5
l 6
i.e. =
b 5
6
 l= b
5
∵ A=l×b
6
3000 = b × b
5
15000
= b2
6
2500 = b2
 b = 50
6 6
 l = b = × 50
5 5
 l = 60
Perimeter of rectangular courtyard is = 2(l + b) = 2(60 + 50) = 220 m.

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6. Find the area of a trapezoid with base of 10 cms and 14 cms and height of 5 cms.
Solution: The area of trapezoid is given by,
1
A = (Sum of Parallel side)  Height
2

1
= (10 + 14)  5
2
A = 60 cm2

7. Calculate the area of a rhombus whose diagonals

are 30 and 16 cm.
Solution : The area of rhombus is
1
A = (AD  BC)
2
1
= (30  16)
2
A = 240 cm2
 The area of  ABCD is 240 cm2.
Exercise:
1. A circle has a diameter of 14 cm. Calculate its area.
2. In a right angle triangle, the length of one side is 4.5 cm and the length of the hypotenuse
is 20.5 cm. Find the area of the right triangle.

3. A side of rhombus PQRS measures 8.5 units. If the length of the diagonal QS is 8 units.
Find the area of a rhombus.
4. Find the area of a trapezium whose parallel sides are 10 cm and 8 cm, Where the
perpendicular distance between the sides is 4 cm.
5. A wall is of the form of a trapezium with height 4 m and parallel sides being 3 m and 5
m. Find the cost of painting the wall if it has rate of painting as ` 25 per sq.m.
6. The area of a trapezoid is 24 sq.cm and the bases are 9 cm and 7 cm, Find the height.
7. Find area of rhombus whose diagonals are of length 10 cm and 8.2 cm.
8. Find the circumference of circle whose area is 38.5 cm2
9. If diameter of a circle is 28 cm, find the area and circumference of the circle.
10. In a right triangle, the measure of one side is 24 cms and that of the hypotenuse is 25 cm.
Find the area of the right triangle
11. In a rectangle, the length of one of its sides is half the length of its adjacent side. If the
perimeter of rectangle of 43 units, find its area.

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12. The two sides of a triangular park are 25 m and 60 m and angle between them is 30.
Find expenditure required to cut the grass if it costs ` 2/- per sq. m.
13. The area of the ring formed by two concentric circle is 346.5 cm2. If the circumference of
the inner circle is 88 cm. Then find out radius of the outer circle
14. Find the area of a farm in the form of a quadrilateral whose diagonal is 100 m offsets are
50 m and 30 m.

Volume and Surface Area

Cuboid
In everyday life, we come across so many objects like, a match box, a brick etc. Each of these
objects is a cuboid in shape.

A body which has six faces, all rectangles, is called a cuboid or a rectangular solid.
1) Surface area:
Surface area of the cuboid = 2(l  b + b  h + h  l)
2) Volume of the cuboid
Volume of the cuboid = Length  Breadth  Height
=lbh
Solved Examples:
1) Find the surface area of a cuboid of dimensions 25 cm, 20 cm and 12 cm.
Solution :
Here l = 25 cm,b = 20 cm, h = 12 cm
Total surface area of cuboid (St)
= 2(lb + bh + hl)
= 2(25  20 + 20  12 + 12  25)
St = 2080 cm2
Surface area of a cuboid is 2080 cm2.
2) For a cuboid, the height, length and width are given by 13 cm, 35 cm and 22 cm
respectively. Calculate its volume.
Solution : Here l = 35 cm, b = 22 cm, h = 13 cm
Volume of a cuboid (V) = l  b  h
= 35  22  13 = 10010 cm3
Volume of a cuboid is 10010 cm3.

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3) Find the volume of the brick having size 30 cm by 25 cm by 10 cm.
Solution : Here l = 30 cm, b = 25 cm, h = 10 cm
Volume of a brick = l  b  h
= 30  25  10 = 7500 cm3
Volume of a brick is 7500 cm3.

4) A match box measures 4 cm by 2.5 cm by 1.5 cm what will be the volume of packet
containing 12 such match boxes ? How many such packets can be placed in a cardboard box
whose size is 60 cm  30 cm  24 cm ?
Solution :
Volume of match box = (4  2.5  1.5) = 15 cm3
Volume of packet containing 12 match boxes
= (12  15) = 180 cm3
Volume of cardboard box = 60  30  24 = 43200 cm3
43200
 Number of packet that can be put in a cardboard = = 240
180
Exercise:
1) Find the surface area of cuboid whose sides are 3 cm by 6 cm by 10 cm.
2) The volume of a cuboid is 440 cm3 and the area of its base is 88 cm2. Find its height.
3) A box has length 36 cm, breadth 30 cm and height 40 cm. Find the cost of painting it from
outside at the rate of 5 paise per cm2.
4) The total surface area of a cuboidal cement concrete slab is 608 m2. If the length of the slab
is 30 m and height 10 cm, Find its breadth.
5) The outer dimensions of a closed wooden box are 10 cm by 8 cm by 7 cm. Thickness of the
wood is 1 cm. Find the total cost of wood required to make box if 1 cm3 of wood cost `
2.00.
Cube
A cuboid whose length, breadth and height are equal to each other is called a cube.
Since, each face of a cube is a square : area of each face (side) 2 = l2
 Total surface area of the cube
= Sum of the areas of its six faces
= 6  (side)2 = 6  l2
Volume of the cube
= Its length  breadth  height
= lll
= l3

1) Calculate the surface area of the cube having length of one side as 5.3 cm.
Solution : Given : l = 5.3 cm

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 To find surface area of the cube
Surface area of the cube = 6l2
= 6  (5.3)2
= 168.54 cm2
 Total surface area of the cube is 168.5 cm2.

2) A cube having surface 96 cm2. Find its edge length.

Solution : The surface area of cube is
6 l2 = 96
96
 l2 =
6
 2
l = 16
 l2 = 4 cm.
So, the edge of length of cube is 4 cm.

3) The total surface area of a cube is 294 cm2. Find the volume.
Solution : Here total area = St = 294 cm2
l = ?, V=?
Total surface area of a cube = 6 l2
 294 = 6 l2
294
l2 =
6
2
l = 49
l = 7 cm.
Volume of a cube = l3
= (7)3 = 343 cm3.
The volume of the cube is 343 cm3.

4) The volume of a cube is 1,000 cm. Find its total surface area.
Solution : Let the Length of each edge of the cube be ‘ l ’ cm. Then
Volume = 1000 cm3
l3 = 1000
l = 10 cm
 Surface area = 6 l2
= 6  (10)2 = 600 cm2

5) Three cubes whose edges measure 3 cm, 4 cm, and 5 cm respectively to form a single cube.
Find it edge. Also find the surface area of the new cube.

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Solution : Let x cm be the edge of the new cube. Then volume of the new cube = Sum of the
volume of three sides.
x3 = 33 + 43 + 53 = 27 + 64 + 125
x3 = 216
x = 6 cm
 Edge of the new cube is 6 cm long.
Surface area of the new cube.
 6x2 = 6(6)2 = 216 cm2
Exercise:
1) The side of a cube is 60 cm. Find the total surface area of the cube.
2) The diagonal of a cube is 12 cm. What is its edge ?
3) The perimeter of one face of a cube is 24 cm.
Find i) The total area of the 6 faces.
ii) The volume of the cube.
4) Two cubes, each with 12 cm edge, are joined end to end. Find the surface area of the
resulting cuboid.
3
5) Find the volume of the cube. If the length of the one side is cm
2
Cylinder
1. Right Circular Cylinder
In our day to day life, we come across several solids like measuring jars, circular pillars,
circular pipes, a garden roller, gas, cylinder etc. These solids have a curved (lateral) surface with
congruent circular ends. Such solids are right circular cylinders.
A right circular cylinder has two plane ends. Each plane end is circular in shape, and the two
plane ends are parallel; that is, they lie in parallel planes. Each of the plane end is called a base of
the cylinder.

Volume of right circular cylinder

Here, the base is a circle of radius r and height is h
Volume = (Area of base)  Height
V = r2h
Lateral surface
Lateral surface is a curved surface which is given by
s = 2rh
and Total surface = 2rh + 2r2h (base area)

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Solved Examples:
1) Find the volume of a cylinder having radius 7 cm and height 12 cm.
Solution : Given Radius =r = 7 cm
and Height = h = 12 cm
To find Volume = ?
Volume of cylinder = r2h
22
=  (7)2  12 = 22  7  12
7
Volume = 1848 cm3
 The volume of the cylinder is 1848 cm3
2) The area of the base of a right circular cylinder is 154 cm2 and its height is 15 cm. Find the
volume of the cylinder.
Solution : We have
Volume = (Area of base)  Height
= 154  15 = 2310 cm3
 Volume of the cylinder = 2310 cm3
3) The circumference of the base of a cylinder is 132 cm and its height 25 cm. Find the volume
of the cylinder.
Solution : Let r cm be the radius of the cylinder.
Then Circumference = 132 cm
2r = 132
22
2   r = 132
7
132  7
r= = 21 cm
2  22
We have Height = h = 25 cm
22
Volume of the cylinder = r2h =  (21)2  25
7
Volume of the cylinder = 34650 cm3
4) Find the capacity of a cylindrical water tank whose radius is 2.1 m and height is 5 m.
Solution :
Here the radius of a cylindrical water tank is 2.1 m and height is 5 m.
Volume of tank = r2h
= 3.14  (2.1)2  5 = 69.3 cm3
 Volume of tank is 69.3 cm3
We know that 1 m3 = 1000 litre
 69.3 m3 = 69.3  1000 = 69300 litre
 The capacity of a cylindrical water tank is 69300 litre.

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5) Find the curved surface area and total surface area of a right circular cylinder whose height is
15 cm and the radius of the base is
 22
7 cm. Take  = 
 7
Solution : Here r =Radius = 7 cm
h = Height = 15 cm
Curved surface area of =2rh
the cylinder
22
= 2   7  15
7
= 660 cm2
Total surface area of the cylinder = 2r(h + r)
22
= 2   7  (15  7) cm2
7
= 968 cm2
6) Find the height of a cylinder whose radius is 7 cm and the total surface area is 968 cm2.
Solution : Let Height of the cylinder be h cm.
Given r = 7 cm and
Total surface area = 968 cm2
2r (h + r) = 968
22
2   7  (h + 7) = 968
7
 44(h + 7) = 968
968
h+7=
44
h + 7 = 22
h = 15
Hence, the height of the cylinder is 15 cm.
EXERCISE:
1) A cylinder has radius 6.7 cm and height 9 cm, Find the volume of the cylinder.
2) The volume of a cylinder is 448 cm3 and height 7 cm. Find its lateral surface area and
total surface area.
3) Find the volume of a right circular cylinder which has a height of 21 cm and the base
radius 5 cm. Find also the curved surface area of the cylinder.
4) The whole surface of a right circular cylinder is 7 sq.ft., 37 sq.in and the diameter of the
base is half the height. Find the height.
5) The volume of a right cylinder is 1100 cu. cms and the radius of its base 5 cms. Find the
area of the curved surface.

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Cone : A cone is a solid generated by a line, one end of which is fixed
and the other end describes a closed curve in a plane. The fixed point is
called the vertex or apex.
If the base is a circle, the cone is called circular cone. The line joining
the vertex of the cone with the centre of the circle (base) is
called “axis” of the cone. If the axis of the cone is perpendicular to the base, then, the cone is
said to be “right circular cone”.
Volume of a right circular cone
1
V = (area of base)  height
3
1
V = (r2)  h
3
Curved surface
1
= (perimeter of the base)  slant height
2
1
= (2r)  l = rl
2
Where Slant height (l) = h2 + r2
and r is the radius of circular base.
Total surface area
= rl + r2
= r(r + l)
Solved Examples:
1) Find the volume of a cone having radius 10 cm and height 20 cm.
1
Solution : The volume of a cone = r2h
3
Where r = radius = 10 cm
h = Height = 20 cm
1 22
Volume =   (10)2  20
3 7
Volume = 2095.23 cm3
2) The height and slant height of a cone are 12 cm and 20 cm respectively. Find its volume.
(Take  = 3.14)
Solution : We have a cone having height 12 cm and slant height 20 cm.
First we have find the radius of a cone.
By Pythagoras theorem
r2 + h2 = l2
r2 = l2  h2
= (20)2  (12)2
r2 = 256

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 r = 16 cm.
The radius of the cone is 16 cm.
Now volume of a cone
1 1
= r2h =  3.14  (16)2  12 = 3215.36 cm2
3 3
 Volume of a cone is 3215.36 cm2.
3) A cone has a circular base of radius 10 cm and slant height of 30 cm. Calculate the surface
area.
Solution :
Radius of cone = 10 cm = r
Slant height = 30 cm = l
Total surface area = r (r + l)
22
= × 10(10 + 30)
7
= 1257.14 sq.cm
4) A right pyramid of height 12 cms stands on square base whose side is 10 cms. Find 1) Slant
height 2) Slant surface 3) Volume of the pyramid.
Solution :
1) Slant height = (12)2 + (5)2 = 169 = 13
 Slant height = 13 cms.
1
2) Slant surface = (Perimeter of base)  Slant height
2
1
= (10 + 10 + 10 + 10)  (13)
2
= 260 sq.cm.
1
3) Volume = (Area of base)  Height
3
1
= (100)  12 = 400 cm3
3
EXERCISE:
1) The radius of the base of a right circular cone is 6 cms and the slant height is 6.5 cms. Find
the volume.
2) The curved surface area of a cone is 4070 cm2 and its diameter is 70 cm. What is its slant
 22
height ? Use  = 
 7
3) Find the volume of a right circular cone whose diameter is 6 cm and slant height 5 cm.
4) Find the curved surface area of a cone having diameter 2 m and height 4 3 m.
5) The height of a cone is 2.5 cm and the radius of its base 6 cm. Find its area.
6) If the circumference is 14 cm and height is 11 cm. Find the volume of cone.

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Sphere
A sphere is a solid bounded by a curved surface every point of which
is equidistance from a point within it (called as centre). The distance of
any point of the surface from the centre is called ‘radius of the sphere’.
The volume of a sphere of radius r is given by
4
V = r2
3
And Surface area = S = 4r2
Solved Examples:
 22
1) Find the volume and surface area of a sphere of radius 4.2 cm. Take  =  .
 7
Solution : We have
r = Radius of the sphere = 4.2 cm
4 4 22
Volume of the sphere = r3 =   (4.2)3
3 3 7
= 310.464 cm3
4
Surface area of the sphere = r2
3
22
= 4   (4.2)2
7
= 221.76 cm2
2) Total volume of 21 steel balls in a bearing is 88 cubic cm. Find the diameter of each ball.
Solution :
4
 Volume of steel ball = r3
3
88 4 3
= r
21 3
7 88 3
  = r3
22 21 4
 r3 = 1
 r = 1 cm
Diameter of steel ball = 2r
= 2(1) = 2 cm.
3) The surface area of the sphere is 616 sq.cm. Find the diameter of the sphere.
Solution : We know that the surface area of a sphere. = 4 r2
 616 = 4 r2
616  7
= r2
4  22
 r2 = 49
 r = 7 cm

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 The radius of the sphere = 7 cm
Diameter (d) = 2r = 14 cm.
4) The volumes of two spheres are in the ratio 64 : 27. Find their radii if the sum of their radii is
21 cm.
Solution : Let the radii of two spheres be r1 and r2 respectively. Let the volume of two spheres
be V1 and V2 respectively.
V1 64
 =
V2 27
4 3
r
3 1 64
 =
4 3 27
 r2
3
r13 43
 = 
r23 3
r1 4
 =
r2 3
4r2
 r1 =
3
Given r1 + r2= 21
4 r2
+ r2 = 21
3
7 r2
= 21
3
7 r2 = 63
r2 = 9 cm
4 r2 4(9)
r1 = =
3 3
36
= = 12 cm.
3
Hence, the radii of two spheres are 12 cm and 9 cm.
5) A lead bar 10  5  4 cms is melted and 5 equal spherical bullets are made. Find the diameter
of the bullet.
Solution : Volume of the bar = 10  5  4 = 200 cu.cms
Let ‘r’ be the radius of each bullet.
4
Then 5  r3 = 200
3
200  3
r3 =
54
30 30  7 105
r3 =  r3 = = = 9.55
 22 11

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 3
r= 9.55
3
So that the diameter of each bullet is 2 9.55 cm.
EXERCISE:
4
1) If the volume of a sphere is cc. Find its surface area.
3
88
2) The volume of a sphere is cubic metres. Find its surface area.
21
 22
3) Find the volume and total surface area of a hemisphere of radius 3.5 cm Use  =  .
 7

4) The surface area of the sphere is 616 cm2. Find the diameter of the sphere.
16
5) A solid metallic cylinder of radius 18 cms and height cms. is melted and spherical
3
balls of diameter 12 cms are made out of it. Find the number of balls made.
6) The volume of two spheres are in the ratio 27 : 64. Find their radii if the sum of their
radii is 28 cm.
7) A solid right circular cone of radius 2 m and height 27 m is melted and recasted into a
sphere. Find the volume and surface area of the sphere.

119 | P a g e
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 Unit 5
Statistics
Course Outcome: Use basic concepts of statistics to solve engineering related problems
Unit outcome:
a) Obtain range and co-efficient of range of the given grouped and ungrouped data
b) Calculate mean and standard deviation of discrete and grouped data related to given
simple engineering problems
c) Determine variance and co-efficient of variance of given grouped and ungrouped data
Introduction: Statistics is a science of collection, presentation , analysis and interpretation of the
numerical data which is very essential for development of modern statistical techniques used in
engineering fields.

Significance :
Comparison of statistical data leads us to make better decision.

Range:
Range for raw data:
Raw data: Range for raw data is defined as the difference between the smallest value and
largest value in the given data .
L = Largest value, S = Smallest value
Range = L – S
Co-efficient of range : = L  S
LS
Solved Example:
1) Find the range and coefficient of range for the following data.
200, 210 208 , 160 , 250 , 290
Solution: 200, 210, 208, 160, 250, 290
Smallest value = S = 160
Largest value = L = 290
Range = largest value – Smallest value
=L–S
= 290 – 160
Range = 130
LS
Co-efficient of range =
LS
290  160
=
290  160
130
=  0.28889
450

125 | P a g e
Exercise:
Find the range and coefficient of range of the following distribution
1) 15, 25, 35, 45, 55, 65
2) 45, 42, 39, 40, 48, 41, 45, 44.
3) 10, 5, 12, 2, 15, 20, 8, 10
4) 50, 90, 120, 9, 13, 11, 5
Range for ungrouped data:- Range for ungrouped data is defined as the difference between
the smallest value of xi and largest value of xi in the given data.
L = Largest value of xi, S = Smallest value of xi
Range = L – S
LS
Co-efficient of range: =
LS
Solved Example:
1) Find the range and coefficient of range for the following data .

xi 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
fi 2 3 7 5 7 8 8 10
Solution

xi 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
fi 2 3 7 5 7 8 8 10
Smallest value of xi = S = 5
Largest value of xi = L = 40
Range = Smallest value of xi - Largest value of xi
=L-S
= 40 -5
Range = 35
LS
Co-efficient of range =
LS
40  5
=
40  5
35
=  0.77778
45
Exercise:
1) Find range and coefficient of range of the following distribution
xi 10 20 30 40 50
fi 7 5 3 2 1

2) Find range and coefficient of range of the following distribution

126 | P a g e
 xi 3 8 13 18 23 28 33
fi 1 4 5 7 2 3 10
3) From the following data, calculate (i) Range, (ii) Coefficient of range
Mark 5 15 25 35 45 55
No. of students 10 20 30 40 50 60

Range for grouped data: - Range for grouped data is defined as the difference between upper
boundary of highest class and lower boundary of lowest class in the given grouped data .
U = upper boundary of highest class,
L = lower boundary of lowest first class
Range = U – L
U L
co-efficient of range =
U L
Solved Examples:
1) Find the range and coefficient of range for the following data
Marks 10 - 20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50 - 60
No. of students 6 19 34 10 18
Solution:
xi 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60
fi 6 19 34 10 18
U = upper boundary of last class ,=60
L = lower boundary of first class =10
Range = U – L
= 60-10
= 50
U L
co-efficient of range =
U L
60  10
=
60  10
50

70
 0.71429
2) Find the range and coefficient of range for the following data
Marks 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69
No.of students 6 10 16 14 8 4

Solution : Given data is discontinuous data , so we first find the class boundaries
Xi 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69

127 | P a g e
 19.5- 29.5- 39.5- 49.5-
C.B 9.5 -19.5 59.5- 69.5
29.5 39.5 49.5 59.5
Fi 6 10 16 14 8 4
U = upper boundary of highest class ,=69.5
L = lower boundary of lowest class =9.5
Range = U – L
= 69.5 – 9.5
= 60
U L
co-efficient of range =
U L
69.5  9.5
=
69.5  9.5
60

79
 0.76
Exercise:
1) From the following data, calculate (i) Range and (ii) Coefficient of range
Mark 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60
No. of students 10 20 15 25 30 25
2) Find the range and coefficient of range of the distribution
Class interval 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60
Frequency 09 12 16 14 10
3) Calculate the range and coefficient of range for the following data :
Class : 21 - 25 26 - 30 31 - 35 36 - 40 41 - 45
Frequency : 4 16 38 12 10
4) Find range and coefficient of range for the following
Mark 20- 30- 40- 50- 60- 70- 80- 90-
29 39 49 59 69 79 89 99
No.of students 10 15 16 20 21 22 09 08
5) The weight of the students is given below. Calculate the range and
coefficient of range for the same.
Weight (kg) 60 - 62 63 - 65 66 - 68 69 - 71 72 - 74
No. of students 5 18 42 27 8
Mean Deviation
Mean Deviation for raw data
|xi –x |  |di|
i) Mean deviation about mean = =
N N
where –x = mean of N observations.

128 | P a g e
Solved Example:
1) Calculate the mean deviation about the mean of the following data.
3, 6, 5, 7, 10, 12, 15, 18
Solution : Given data is raw data
 xi 3 + 6 + 5 + 7 + 10 + 12 + 15 + 18
Mean =  x = =
N 8
76
=
8
= 9.5
xi –
| di | = | xi – x |
3 6.5
6 3.5
5 4.5
7 2.5
10 0.5
12 2.5
15 5.5
18 8.5
 | di | = 34

 | di | 34
M.D. = =
N 8
M.D. = 4.25
Exercise:
Determine the mean deviation from mean of the following data
1) 12, 6, 7, 3, 15, 10, 18, 5
2) 34, 32, 18, 20, 28, 15, 17, 22, 25, 29
3) 30, 35, 40, 42, 38, 27, 31, 36, 40, 41
4) 5, 9, 1, 7, 3, 8, 6, 2, 4

Mean Deviation for Discrete (ungrouped) Frequency Distribution

fi|xi  –x| fi|di|
M.D. about mean = =
fi N
where N = fi and |di| = |xi  –x|
Solved Example:
1) Calculate the Mean deviation from Mean of the following data.

129 | P a g e
 xi 10 11 12 13 14
fi 3 12 18 12 3

Solution: Mean deviation about mean :

xi fi fi xi |di|= |xi  –x| fi | di |
10 3 30 2 6
11 12 132 1 12
12 18 216 0 0
13 12 156 1 12
14 03 42 2 06
N=  fi xi =  fi | di |
 fi = 48 576 = 36
fi xi 576
Mean = –x = = = 12
N 48
 fi | di | 36
M.D. = = = 0.75
N 48

Exercise:
1) Calculate the mean deviation about the mean of the following distribution.
xi 3 4 5 6 7 8
fi 4 9 10 8 6 3
2) Calculate the mean deviation about mean from the data.
x 3 9 17 23 27
v 8 10 12 9 5
4) Find the mean deviation from the mean for the following frequency distribution.
xi 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64
fi 5 13 12 8 6 10 9 3
Mean deviation for grouped data :
fi|xi  –x| fi | di |
M.D. = =
fi N
where xi = Mid – Value or centre value
–x = Mean
N = fi
Solved Examples:
1) Find the mean deviation from mean of the following distribution.
Marks 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50
No. of students 5 8 15 16 6

130 | P a g e
Solution
C.I. fi xi fi xi |di| = |xi  –x| fi | di |
0-10 5 5 25 22 110
10-20 8 15 120 12 96
20-30 15 25 375 2 30
30-40 16 35 560 8 128
40-50 6 45 270 18 108
N = fi fi xi =  fi | di |
= 50 1350 = 472
fi xi
Mean = –x =
 fi
1350
= = 27
50
 fi | di |
Mean Deviation about mean =
N
472
=
50
= 9.44
2) Calculate the mean deviation for the following data :
Class intervals 40-59 60-79 80-99 100-119 120-139
No. of families 50 300 500 200 60
Solution:
Continue |di| =
Class xi fi fi xi fi | di |
class |x  –x|
i
40-59 39.5-59.5 49.5 50 2475 38.559 1927.95
60-79 59.5-79.5 69.5 300 20850 18.559 5567.7
80-99 79.5-99.5 89.5 500 44750 1.441 720.5
100-119 99.5-119.5 109.5 200 21900 21.441 4288.2
120-139 119.5-139.5 129.5 60 7770 41.441 2486.86
N=
fi fi xi
 fi | di |
= =
= 14990.81
1110 97745

fi xi 97745
Mean = –x = = = 88.059
N 1110
 fi | di | 14990.81
M.D. = = = 13.505
N 1110

131 | P a g e
Exercise:
1) Find the mean deviation from the mean.
Class 10- 20- 30- 40- 50- 60-
interval 20 30 40 50 60 70
Frequency 4 6 10 18 9 3
2) Compute the mean deviation from mean for the following frequency distribution.

Production
of Chikoos 4-8 8-12 12-16 16-20 20-24 24-28 28-32 32-36 36-40
(in quintals)
Number of
5 8 18 25 15 12 10 5 2
Chikoo trees

3) Calculate mean deviation from the mean

Age in year 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70
No. of person 4 6 10 20 10 6 4

4) Find the mean deviation from mean for the following frequency distribution
Class 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50
Frequency 1 2 4 2 1

Standard deviation (S.D.)

Standard deviation for raw data :

 xi – –x
2
( )  d2 i
S.D. =  = =
N N
–x = Mean

d = |x  –x|
i i
N = Total number of observation
1) Calculate S.D. of the following data :
25, 50, 30, 70, 42, 36, 48, 34, 60

Solution : Given data is raw data

–x =  xi = 25+50+30+70+42+36+48+34+60 = 395 = 43.888
N 9 9

132 | P a g e
 di = xi  –x
2
xi di
25 –18.88 356.45
50 6.12 37.45
30 –13.88 192.65
70 26.12 682.25
42 – 1.88 3.53
36 – 7.88 62.09
48 4.12 16.97
34 – 9.88 97.614
60 16.12 259.85
 d i = 1708.85
2

 d2i
Standard Deviation =
N
1708.85
=
9
= 189.872
= 13.779
Exercise:
Find standard deviation of the following
1) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.
2) 6, 7, 10, 12, 13, 4, 8, 12
3) 69, 67, 68, 66, 69, 64, 63, 65, 72
4) 60, 45, 48, 52, 65, 50, 61, 59, 51, 49

Standard deviation for ungrouped data :

 fidi2
S.D. =  =
N
where N =  fi
 fixi
x– = Mean =
N
–
di = (xi – x)
Solved Example:
1) Find the standard deviation of the following frequency distribution.

xi 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
fi 3 6 9 13 8 5 4

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Solution :
– 2 2
xi fi fi xi di = xi – x di fi d1
6 3 18 –3 9 27
7 6 42 –2 4 24
8 9 72 –1 1 9
9 13 117 0 0 0
10 8 80 1 1 8
11 5 55 2 4 20
12 4 48 3 9 36
N = fi = 48 fixi = 432 2
fid i = 124
– fixi
Mean =x =
N
432
=
48
–
x=9
2
fid i
S.D. =
N
124
=
48
= 2.583
S. D. =1.607

Exercise:
1. Find arithmetic mean and S.D. of the following distribution
Age in year 25 35 45 55 65 75 85
No. of workers 3 61 132 153 140 51 2

2. Find the standard deviation of the following frequency distribution.

xi 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
fi 4 4 5 15 8 5 4 5

3. Find the standard deviation of the following frequency distribution.

xi 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68
fi 2 1 2 29 25 12 10 4 5

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Standard deviation for grouped data
 fi di2
S.D. =  =
N
where, N = fi
di=| xi – x– |
 fi xi
x– =Mean =
N
xi = Mid - Value
Solved Examples:
1) Find Standard deviation of the following data
C.I. 0 - 10 10 - 20 20 - 30 30 - 40 40 - 50
Frequency 3 5 8 3 1
Solution :
di = | xi – x– |
2 2
C.I. fi xi fi xi di fi d i
0 - 10 3 5 15 17 289 867
10 - 20 5 15 75 7 49 245
20 - 30 8 25200 3 9 72
30 - 40 3 35105 13 169 507
40 - 50 1 45 45 23 529 529
N =  fi  fixi =
 fidi2 = 2220
= 20 440
 fixi 440
Mean = x– = = = 22
N 20
 fidi2
Standard Deviation . =
N
2220
= = 111
20
Standard Deviation. = 10.53
2) Calculate Mean and Standard deviation for the following data.
Class 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79
Frequency 10 15 30 20 15 10

Cont. – 2 2
Class fi xi fi xi di = | xi – x | di fid i
Class
20-29 19.5-29.5 10 24.5 245 24.5 600.25 6002.5
30-39 29.5-39.5 15 34.5 517.5 14.5 210.25 3153.75
40-49 39.5-49.5 30 44.5 1335 4.5 20.25 607.5
50-59 49.5-59.5 20 54.5 1090 5.5 30.25 605
60-69 59.5-69.5 15 64.5 967.5 15.5 240.25 3603.75

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 70-79 69.5-79.5 10 74.5 745 25.5 650.25 6502.5
N= fi xi
2
fi = = fid i = 20475
100 4900
– fixi
Mean = x =
N
4900
=
100
= 49
Standard Deviation =
2
fid1
=
N
20475
=
100
= 14.309
Exercise:
1. Calculate the mean and standard deviation for the following data
Expenditure in ` 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50
Frequency 14 23 27 21 15
2. Calculate the mean and standard deviation for the following frequency distribution.

Class 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80 80-90 90-100

Frequency 3 7 12 15 8 3 2

3. The crushing strength of 45 cement blocks is recorded as

Crushing strength 145- 155- 165- 175- 185- 195-
2
in kg/cm 155 165 175 185 195 205
No. of Blocks 6 7 9 14 4 5
find standard deviation
4. The following table shows the chest measurement of 100 students. Calculate the mean
and standard deviation.

Chest in cm 67-74 75-81 82-88 89-95 96-102 103-109

Number of
5 31 40 20 3 1
students

Variance-
The square of standard deviation is called the variance

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Raw data
Variance = (S.D.)2
xi
x– = Mean =
N
N = Total number of observations
S.D.
Coefficient of variance = × 100
Mean

= – × 100
x
Solved Example:
1) Find variance and coefficient of variance of the following data
1) 49, 63, 46, 59, 65, 52, 60, 54
Solution
 xi
x– =
N
49 + 63 + 46 + 59 + 65 + 52 + 60 + 54
=
8
448
x– =  x– = 56
8
di = xi – x–
2
xi di
49 –7 49
63 7 49
46 – 10 100
59 3 9
65 9 81
52 –4 16
60 4 16
54 –2 4
 d i = 324
2

 d2i 324
S.D. =  = =
N 8
S.D. =  = 6.363
Variance = (S.D.)2 = (6.363)2
= 40.487
S.D.
Coefficient of variance = × 100
Mean
 6.363
= – × 100 = × 100
x 56
= 11.362 %

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Exercise:
Find variance and coefficient of variance of following data
1) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
2) 25, 50, 30, 70, 42, 36, 48, 34, 60
Variance for ungroup data
Solved Examples:

1) Calculate variance for the data

x 10 20 30 40 50
f 12 15 17 11 9
Solution :
xi fi fixi di = (xi – x– ) di2 fidi2
10 12 120 – 18.437 339.92 4079.04
20 15 300 – 8.437 71.182 1067.73
30 17 510 1.563 2.442 41.541
40 11 440 11.563 133.70 1470.7
50 9 450 21.563 464.96 4184.64
N = fi = 64 fixi = 1820  fidi2 = 10843.65
1820
Mean= x– =
64
–
x = 28.437
 fid i
2

S.D. = =
N
10843.65
=
64
S.D. =  = 13.016
Variance = (S.D.)2
= (13.016)2
Variance = 169.416
Exercise:
1. Find variance and co-efficient of variance of following data
x 10 15 20 25
f 17 22 19 16
Variance for grouped data :
Solved Examples:

1) Find variance and coefficient of variance of the following data.

C.I. 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50
Frequency 14 23 27 21 15

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Solution:

di = | xi – x– |
2 2
Class fi xi fixi di fi d i
0-10 14 5 70 20 400 5600
10-20 23 15 345 10 100 2300
20-30 27 25 675 0 0 0
30-40 21 35 735 10 100 2100
40-50 15 45 675 20 400 6000
fixi
fi d i =
2
N = fi
=
= 100 16000
2500
fixi 2500
Mean = x– = = = 25
N 100
fidi2 16000
S.D. =  = =
N 100
S.D. = 12.649
Variance = (S.D.)2 = 2 = (12.649)2
= 159.997

S.D. 
Coefficient of variance = × 100 = – × 100
Mean x
12.649
Coefficient of variance = × 100
25
= 50.596 %
2) If the mean is 82.5, standard deviation is 7.2, find the coefficient of variance.
S.D.
Solution : Coefficient of variance =  100
Mean
7.2
=  100
82.5
= 8.727 %
3) Coefficient of variation of a distribution is 75 % and standard deviation is 24.
What is its means
S.D.
Solution : Coefficient of variation=  100
Mean
24
75 =  100
Mean
24
 Mean =  100
75
Mean = 32

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 Exercise:
1) The following tables gives the chest measurement of 30 men. Find variance and coefficient
of variance.
Chest in cm 50-54 55-59 60-64 65-69 70-74 75-79 80-84 85 - 89 90-94
No. of men 3 2 3 2 1 4 9 5 1

2) Find variance of the data :

Class interval 0-30 30-60 60-90 90-120 120-150
Frequency 12 16 25 22 10
3) Find variance and the coefficient of variance for following data :
C.I. 0-30 30-60 60-90 90-120 120-150 150-180 180-210
Frequency 9 17 43 82 81 44 24
4) Find mean and variance of the following
Age under 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
No. of person 15 30 53 75 100 110 115 125
5) If the coefficient of variation of certain data is 5 and mean is 60, find the standard deviation.
6) Coefficient of variation of certain distribution is 5 and mean is 60. Find the standard
deviation.
7) If the mean of data is 12 and coefficient of variation of the data is 45%, then Find the
standard deviation of the data.
8) The mean and variance of 10 observations are 4 and 9 respectively. Find their coefficient of
variance
Comparison of Two Sets of Observations
Co-efficient of variance is the most important relative measure of dispersion .
Less the coefficient of variance the set is more consistent. If a set has greater coefficient of
variance then it is not so reliable because it has less consistency, more variations.
Solved Examples:
1) Two sets of observation are given below
Set-I Set-II
– –
x = 82.5 y = 48.75
x = 7.3 y = 8.35
Which of the two sets is more consistent ?
Solution :

Coefficient of variance of set I =  100
–x
7.3
=  100 = 8.848 %
82.5

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 
Coefficient of variance of set II = –  100
x
8.35
=  100 = 17.12 %
48.75
Set I is more consistent because having less coefficient of variance
2) In the two factories A and B engaged in the same industry, the average weekly wages and
standard deviation are as follows :
Factories Average wages Standard deviation
A 34.5 5.0
B 28.5 4.5
Which factory is more consistent?
Solution :
 5.0
Coefficient of variance of factory A= –  100 =  100
x 34.5
= 14.49 %
 4.5
Coefficient of variance of factory B = –  100 =  100
x 28.5
= 15.79 %
 Factory A is more consistent because having less coefficient of variance
3) The data of run scored by two batsman A and B in five one day matches is given below :
Batsman Average run scored S.D.
A 44 5.1
B 54 6.31
State which batsman is more consistent

Solution : Coefficient of Variance of batsman A = × 100
x
5.1
= × 100
44
= 11.59 %

Coefficient of Variance of batsman B = × 100
x
6.31
= × 100
54
= 11.68 %
Coefficient of variance of Batsman A < Coefficient of variance of Batsman B.
Batsman A is more consistent.

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Exercise:
1. The mean and the S.D. of two sets of variations are
Set-I Set-II
Mean 60 65
S.D. 5 6
which set is more consistent.
2. From the following data investigate which set is more consistent.
Set mean = –x S.D. = 
Set I 83.4 5.9
Set II 51.85 7.45
3. In two factories A and B, engaged in the same area of the industry, the average weekly
wages (in `) and the S.D. are as below :
Factory Average wages S.D.
A 34.5 5.0
B 28.5 4.5
which factory A or B has greater variability in individuals wages ?
4) An analysis of monthly wages paid to the workers in two firms A and B belonging to the
same industry gives the following results :
Firm-A Firm-B
Average monthly wages (in `) 186 175
Variance of distribution of wages (in `) 81 100

In which firm is there greater variability?

5) The Mean of run scored by two batsmen A and B in a series of 10 innings are 50 and 12
respectively. The standard deviation of their runs is 15 and 2 respectively. Who is most
consistent?

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References used for learning manual
Web Resources:
a .www.scilab.org/ - SCI Lab
b. www.allmathcad.com/ - MathCAD
c. www.wolfram.com/mathematica/ - Mathematica
d. https://www.khanacademy.org/math?gclid=CNqHuabCys4CFdOJaAoddHoPig

Reference books:

1. Kreyszig Erwin, “Advanced Engineering Mathematics” ,10th edition ,Wiley Eastern Limited
2015. ISBN-13: 978-0470458365.
2. Das, H.K. “Advanced Engineering Mathematics” S. Chand & Co.; New Delhi; 2008, ISBN-
9788121903455.
3. O’ Neil Peter, “Advanced Engineering Mathematics”, 8th edition, Cengage Learning 2015.
ISBN-13: 978-1337274524
4. Weber H.J. and Arfken G.B. "Mathematical Methods For Physicists" , 6th edition,
Academic Press 2011. ISBN : 9780123846549.
5. Wandekar A. D., Nirmale V. K., Shinde V. B., “Basic mathematics”, Technical
publication, Pune ISBN: 9789333214759.
6. Jadhav H. D., Dr. Pawar S. P., “Basic mathematics”, Gigatech publishing house, Pune
ISBN : 9788193414088.

MOOCs:

1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F21S9Wpi0y8
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bFbSTDbUvJo
3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=daIb2VF1i3M
4. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kuixY2bCc_0
5. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UpUjJQGSlDY

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