Chapter one

TURBO MACHINERY

For 4𝑡ℎ Year Mechanical and Electromechanical

Engineering Students

By : Mihretu W/M (MSc)

 INTRODUCTION
DEFINITION
• The term Turbomachine consists of two words, namely
Turbo and Machine
• A turbo machine is a device in which energy transfer occurs
between a flowing fluid and rotating element due to
dynamic action. This results in change of pressure and
momentum of the fluid.
• Turbo : is derived from a Latin word ‘turbinis’, meaning
‘spin’ or ‘rotate’.
• Machine : in this context may be defined as an energy
converter which converts one form of energy into another.

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 Machine

• Water Turbine
• Steam Turbine
Fluid Mechanical
• Gas Turbine
Energy Energy
• Wind Turbine

Machine

• Fan
• Blower
Mechanical • Compressor Fluid
Energy • Pump Energy

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 Parts of a turbo machine

Fig: 1. Schematic cross-sectional view of a turbine

showing the principal parts of the turbo machine.

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 The principle components of a turbo machine are
1. Rotating element (vane, impeller or blades)– operating in a
stream of fluid.
2. Stationary elements – which usually guide the fluid in
proper direction for efficient energy conversion process.
3. Shaft – This either gives input power or takes output power
from fluid under dynamic conditions and runs at required
speed.
4. Housing – to keep various rotating, stationery and other
passages safely under dynamic conditions of the flowing
fluid.
E.g. Steam turbine parts and Pelton turbine parts.

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 Types of Turbo machine
• If the fluid transfers energy for the rotation of the
impeller, fixed on the shaft, it is known as power
generating turbo machine.
• If the machine transfers energy in the form of
angular momentum fed to the fluid from the rotating
impeller, fixed on the shaft, it is known as power
absorbing turbo machine.

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 Cont…

Figure 1: Turbine and Compressor

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 CLASSIFICATION OF TURBO MACHINES
1. Based on energy transfer
a) Energy is given by fluid to the rotor - Power generating
turbo machine E.g. Turbines
b) Energy given by the rotor to the fluid – Power
absorbing turbo machine E.g. Pumps, blowers and
compressors
2. Based on fluid flowing in turbo machine
a) Water
b) Air
c) Steam
d) Hot gases
e) Liquids like petrol etc… 8
 Cont…
3. Based on direction of flow through the impeller or vanes
or blades, with reference to the axis of shaft rotation
a) Axial flow – Axial pump, compressor or turbine
b) Mixed flow – Mixed flow pump, Francis turbine
c) Radial flow – Centrifugal pump or compressor
d) Tangential flow – Pelton water turbine

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Cont…

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 Cont…
4. Based on condition of fluid in turbo machine
a) Impulse type (constant pressure) E.g. Pelton water
turbine
b) Reaction type (variable pressure) E.g. Francis reaction
turbine
5. Based on position of rotating shaft
a) Horizontal shaft – Steam turbines
b) Vertical shaft – Kaplan water turbines
c) Inclined shaft – Modern bulb micro-hydel turbines

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 Comparison between Positive Displacement
Machines and Turbo Machines Action:
• A positive displacement machine creates thermodynamic
and mechanical action between near static fluid and
relatively slow moving surface and involves in volume
change and displacement of fluid as in IC engines.
• A turbo machine creates thermodynamic and dynamic
action between flowing fluid and rotating element involving
energy transfer with pressure and momentum changes as
shown in gas turbines.

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Cont…

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 Operation
• The positive displacement machine commonly involves reciprocating
motion and unsteady flow of fluids like in reciprocating IC engines or
slow rotating fluids like in gear pumps.
• A turbo machine involves steady flow of fluid with pure rotary motion
of mechanical elements. Only unsteadiness will be there during
starting, stopping and changes in loads on the machine.
Mechanical features:
• A positive displacement machine commonly work at low speeds and
involves complex mechanical design. It may have valves and
normally will have heavy foundation.
• A turbo machine works at high speeds, simpler in design, light in
weight, have less vibration problems and require light foundation.

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 Efficiency of energy conversion
• A positive displacement machine gives higher efficiency
due to energy transfer near static conditions either in
compression or expansion processes.
• A turbo machine gives less efficiency in energy transfer.
The energy transfer due to dynamic action will be less
during compression process of fluid like pumps and
compressors and will be slightly more during expansion
processes like in turbines but still lower than reciprocating
machines.

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 Volumetric efficiency:
• The volumetric efficiency of a positive displacement
machine is low due to closing and opening of the
valves during continuous operation.
• In turbo machines, since there are no valves under
steady flow conditions, the volumetric efficiency
will be close to 100 per cent.
• A turbo machine has high fluid handling capacity.

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 Weight to mass flow rate:
• A reciprocating air craft IC engine power engine developing 300 KW
handles 2 kgs/sec of air weigh’s around 9500 N.
• Where, as a rotary gas turbine of an air craft for same 300 KW power
can handle 22 kgs/sec of air and weighs only 8000N handling more
mass of air/sec.
• In stationary power plants, the specific weight of reciprocating power
plants will be 10-15 times higher than the turbo power plants.

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Cont…

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 Fluid phase
• Turbo machines have the phase changes occurring in fluid
like cavitation in hydraulic pumps and turbines and surge
and stall in compressors, blowers and fans if the machines
are operated at off design condition leading to associated
vibrations and stoppage of flow and damage to blades.
• Positive displacement machines have no such problems

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 Application of Turbo machines
1. Electric Power generation ( Pelton, Francis and
Kaplan Turbines)
2. Thermal Power Plants ( Steam Turbines)
3. Wind Mills
4. Aircraft Propulsion
5. Multi stage Centrifugal pumps and compressors
used in Petrochemical industries
6. Fans & blowers in furnace to produce draught

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Revision of Fluid mechanics

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Cont…

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Cont…

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 Momentum
• The capacity of a moving body to impart motion to other
bodies is called momentum.
• The momentum of a moving body is given by the product of
mass and velocity of the moving body.

 Impulsive Force and Impulse of Force:

• A force acting over a short interval of time on a body is called
impulsive force. Eg: Kick given to a football.
• Impulse of a force is given by the product of magnitude of force and
its time of action.

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Impulse – Momentum Principle:

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Cont…

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FLAT PLATE:

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 INCLINED PLATE
• (A)Force exerted by jet on Fixed Inclined Plate:
• The configuration of the system is shown in
following fig

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 Dimensional Analysis
• To study the performance characteristics of turbo machines, a
large number of variables are involved.
• The use of dimensional analysis reduces the variables to a
number of manageable dimensional groups.
• Usually, the properties of interest in regard to turbo machine are
the power output, the efficiency, and the head.
• A summary of the physical properties and dimensions is given in
Table 1.1 for reference.
• Dimensional analysis applied to turbomachines has two more
important uses: (1) prediction of a prototype’s performance from
tests conducted on a scale model (similitude), and (2)
determination of the most suitable type of machine, on the basis
of maximum efficiency, for a specified range of head, speed, and
flow rate.

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Cont…
Moment of Inertia= the
product od mass of each
particle with the square of
its distance from the axis of
the rotation. (I=
𝑳
𝜮𝒎𝒓𝟐 𝒐𝒓 𝑰 = ) where L=
𝝎
Angular momentum
𝝎 = 𝑨𝒏𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚
L= r*mv
𝝉=𝒓∗𝑭
Torque is twisting force
w/c cause rotation.
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐹ൗ𝐴
Modulus= =
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 Δ𝐿ൗ𝐿
Surface tension=𝐹Τ𝑙

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 Methods to analyze dimensions
• There are two methods used to analyze dimensions.
1. Raleigh's method
2. Buckingham's 𝜋 theorem (method)
Raleigh's method- used to find expression of a
variables w/c depends up on maximum of 3 to 4
variables.

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 THE BUCKINGHAM 𝜋 THEOREM
• Used to problems variables more than 4.
• Needed to correlate the unknown variables in a given
process is equal to n - m
• where n is the number of variables involved and m is the
number of dimensionless parameters included in the
variables.
• Suppose, for example, the drag force F of a flowing fluid
past a sphere is known to be a function of the velocity (v)
mass density (𝜌) viscosity (𝜇) and diameter (D). Then we
have five variables (F, v, 𝜌 , 𝜇 , and D) and three basic
dimensions (L, F, and T) involved. Then, there are 5 - 3 =2
basic grouping of variables that can be used to correlate
experimental results
• Every 𝝅 terms have n+1 terms.

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 How to choose repeating variables
• To choose the repeating variables depending on:
1. Geometric property
2. Flow property
3. Fluid property

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Example

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 MODEL TESTING
 Some very large hydraulic machines are tested in a model
form before making the full-sized machine.
 After the result is obtained from the model, one may transpose
the results from the model to the full-sized machine.
• Model Analysis is the study of the model of an actual turbo
machine or a prototype. In order to predict the performance of
turbo machines, such as: Turbines, Pumps, Compressors, etc.,
model analysis has to be used. That means, before the
production of an actual machine (prototype) its corresponding
or matching model has to be prepared.
 A model is a small replica (copy) of an actual machine, by
means of which performance tests in the laboratory can be
conducted as it is economical and also convenient.

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 Cont…
In general, a model is used:
• To predict the performance characteristics of an actual
turbomachine.
• To predict the factors (parameters and/or variables)
which may influence or affect the performance of a
turbomachine.
• To obtain relevant information to design: an efficient,
economical, durable and safe machine.
 The similarities that must exist between the ‘Model’ and its
‘Prototype’ is called Similitude. There are three types of
Similitude or Similarities that must exist between the
Model and the Prototype (Actual Machine):
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 1. GEOMETRIC SIMILARITY
• For geometric similarity to exist between the model and prototype,
both of them should be identical in shape but differ only in size.
• For geometric similarity between the model and the prototype, the
ratios of all the corresponding linear dimensions should be equal.

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 Cont…
• In addition,
i) All angles should be preserved or should not be scaled.
ii) All flow directions should be preserved.
iii) The orientation of the model and prototype with respect to the
surrounding (outside reference) must be identical.
iv) The ‘homologous’ points ( the points which have the same
relative location ) must be related by the same scale-ratio.
Fig.1-1, shows a prototype and a 1:10 (reduced) scale
model of a ‘Blade’. The angle of attack with respect to the
free stream is the same 100 not 10. All other physical
details on the model must be scaled (the length, width,
radius, the surface roughness, etc.). Any departure will
lead to the violation of geometric similarity.
Note:- Models which appear similar in shape but violate
geometric similarity should not be compared ! 49
 Cont…

Fig.1-1. A ‘Prototype’ and its ‘Model’ in Geometric Similarity.

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 2. KINEMATIC SIMILARITY
• For kinematic similarity, both model and prototype have
identical motions or velocities.
• If the ratio of the corresponding points is equal, then the
velocity ratio of the prototype to the model is
That is, the homologous particles should lie at homologous
points and time as shown in Fig. 1-2.
Let, V1m = velocity of fluid at point 1 on the model.
V2m = velocity of fluid at point 2 on the model.
V1p = velocity of fluid at point 1 on the prototype.
V2p = velocity of fluid at point 2 on the prototype.

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 Cont…
• For the velocity-ratio,

Fig. 1-2. A ‘Prototype’ and its ‘Model’ in Kinematic Similarity.

For the acceleration-ratio

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 3. DYNAMIC SIMILARITY
• If model and prototype have identical forces acting
on them, then dynamic similarity will exist.
• Let F1 be the forces acting on the prototype at point
1, and F2 be the forces acting on the prototype at
point 2.
• Then the force ratio to establish dynamic similarity
between the prototype and the model is given by

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 To summarize,
• Before the production of ‘Actual Turbomachines
(Prototypes)’, a corresponding similar ‘Model’ has to be
prepared. For the ‘Model’ to be similar with the ‘Prototype’,
it has to satisfy: the Geometric, Kinematic and Dynamic
similarities.
• Once the ‘Model’ satisfies these preconditions, all
‘Dimensionless Parameters’ for the ‘Prototype’ and for the ’
Model’ are taken to be equal.
• A similar approach can be applied to ‘refigure’ actual turbo
machines from one ‘Performance Characteristics’ to another
by changing the ‘Performance Parameters or Variables’,
considering the same specific speed (Ns).

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 Cont…
• From the derived dimensionless parameters, specific speed
(Ns) has a particular importance as it enables the designer to
select the best turbo machine for a given system. In other
words, it provides the most efficient matching for the
machine with the available head (H) and flow rate (Q).
• In addition, specific speed (Ns) is used to classify turbo
machines as,
• Low specific speed. This types of turbomachines usually
operate at ‘Higher Head’ ( ≈ 300 to 2000 m) and the ‘Flow
Rate’ is lower.
• eg:- Pelton (Water) Turbine.

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 Cont…
• Medium specific speed. This types of turbomachines
usually operate at ‘Medium Head’ ( ≈ 30 to 300 m) and the
‘Flow Rate’ is medium or average.
eg:- Francis (Water) Turbine.
• High specific speed. This types of turbomachines usually
operate at ‘Lower Head’ ( ≈3 to 70 m) and the ‘Flow Rate’
is higher.
eg:- Kaplan (Water) Turbine.

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 Cont…
• The dimensionless specific speed gives the same
numerical value irrespective of the system of units
adopted. However, in practice dimensional specific
speed is used. The dimensional specific speed for
Pumps and Turbines is given by,

…….. for Pumps and,

.……. for Turbines

• Note:- The units to be used are:

• ‘Q’ in ‘m3/s’, ‘H’ in ‘m’, ‘P’ in ‘W’, ‘N’ in ‘rps’ for Turbines
and in ‘rpm’ for Pumps. 57
 Cont…
• In the design of Turbomachines, the first step will be to
determine the Specific speed (Ns). Once the Specific speed
(Ns) is known, the type or shape of the Turbomachine can
be known using figures, tables or charts (Fig. 1-3) from the
‘Design Handbooks’.

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Cont…

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 Cont…
• The most important thing to understand here is; specific
speed (Ns) mainly indicates, the Shapes (Geometry) of
Turbomachines and also the range of working Head (H) and
Flow Rate (Q) .
• Specific speed for Turbines (Nst) may be defined as: The
rotational speed in ‘rpm’ of a geometrically similar Turbines
which would deliver ‘a unit power of 1 kW’ under ‘a unit
head of 1 m’ while operating at the best efficiency.

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 Cont…
• The Speed (N) can be determined from the Generator
Specification.
• The Net Head (H) is the difference between the Gross
Static Head (Hg) and the Total Head Loss (htl).
H  H g  htl where, htl  hMl  hml

• Specific speed for Pumps (Nsp) may be defined as: The

rotational speed in ‘rpm’ of a geometrically similar Pumps
which would deliver ‘a unit flow rate of 1 m3/s’ against a
unit head of 1 m’ while operating at the best efficiency.
N Q
N sp  ........ Dimensionless
( g H )3 / 4
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 Cont…

Fig.1-5. Efficiency,
Flow Rate and
Specific speed relation
for Hydraulic
Turbines.

Fig. Efficiency and Specific speed relation for Hydraulic Turbines

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