Bio-Diversity 1

WHAT IS BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY

Sum total of all the variety of living organisms on earth constitute biodiversity. Biological diversity is
usually considered at three different levels – a) genetic diversity i.e. at genetic Level, b) species
diversity i.e. at the level of species, and c) ecosystem diversity i.e. at the Level of ecosystem.

Genetic diversity

Each species, varying from bacteria to higher plants and animals, stores an immense amount of
genetic information. For example, the number of genes is about 450-700 in mycoplasma,4000 in
bacteria (eg. Escherichia coli) , 13,000 in Fruit-fly (Drosophila melanogaster); 32,000 – 50,000 in rice
(Oryza sativa); and 35,000 to 45,000 in human beings (Homo sapiens sapiens). This variation of
genes, not only of numbers but of structure also, is of great value as it enables a population to adapt
to its environment and to respond to the process of natural selection. If a species has more genetic
variation, it can adapt better to the changed environmental conditions. Lower diversity in a species
leads to genetic uniformity of genetically similar crop plants. This homogeneity is desirable in
producing uniform quality of grain. But genetic uniformity restricts adaptability of a species to
environmental stress as all the plants have same level of resistance.

With the above background, genetic diversity refers to the variety of genes contained within species of
plants, animals and micro-organisms. New genetic variation in individuals occurs by gene and
chromosomal mutation, and in organisms with sexual reproduction may be spread across the
population by recombination. For instance, two brothers differ in their structure, although their parents
are the same. The differences could be in alleles (different variants of the same gene), in entire gene
(the traits determining particular characteristics) or in chromosomal structure. The amount of genetic
variation (gene pool) present in an inter-breeding population is shaped or decided by the process of
natural selection. Selection leads to certain genetic attributes being preferred and results in changes
in the frequency of genes within this pool. This forms the basis of adaptation among the living
organisms.

Species diversity

Species diversity refers to the variety of species within a geographical area.

Species diversity can be measured in terms of:

(a) Species richness – refers to the number of various species in a defined area.

(b) Species abundance – refers to the relative numbers among species. For example, the
number of species of plants, animals and microorganisms may be more in an area than that
recorded in another area.

(c) Taxonomic or phylogenetic diversity – refers to the genetic relationships between different
groups of species.
 Bio-Diversity 2

At the global level, an estimated 1.7 million species of living organisms have been described to date
and many more are yet to be discovered. It has been currently estimated that the total number of
species may vary from 5 - 50 millions. Species diversity is not evenly distributed across the globe. The
overall richness of species is concentrated in equatorial regions and tends to decrease as one moves
from equatorial to polar regions. In addition, biodiversity in land ecosystems generally decreases with
increasing altitude. The other factors that influence biodiversity are amount of rainfall and nutrient
level in soil. In marine ecosystems, species richness tends to be much higher in continental shelves.
India is a country of vast diversity and it is among the 12 “mega-diversity” countries in the world.

Ecosystem diversity

The tropical south India with rich species diversity will have altogether different structure compared to
the desert ecosystem which has far less number of plant and animal species. Likewise, the marine
ecosystem although has many types of fishes, yet it differs from the freshwater ecosystem of rivers
and lakes in terms of its characteristics. So such variations at ecosystem level are termed as
ecosystem diversity.

The most diversity-rich are western-ghats and the north-eastern region. A very large number of
species found in these ecosystems are endemic or found in these areas only in India i.e. they are
found no where else except in India. The endemics are concentrated mainly in north-east, western-
ghats, north-west Himalaya, and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. About 33% of the flowering plants
recorded in India are endemic to our country. Indian region is also notable for endemic fauna. For
example, out of recorded vertebrates, 53% freshwater fish, 60% amphibians, 36% reptiles and 10%
mammalian fauna are endemic.
 Bio-Diversity 3

Hot spots of biodiversity

Biodiversity is not uniformly distributed across the geographical regions of the earth. Certain regions
of the world are very rich in biodiversity. We call such areas as “mega diversity zones”. We also refer
to them as “hot-spots”. For example, India accounts for only 2.4 % of the land area of the world; but it
contributes approximately 8% species to the global diversity due to existence of such pockets.

i) The area should support >1500 endemic species,

ii) It must have lost over 70 % of the original habitat

Twenty-five biodiversity hot spots have been identified in the world. These hot spots are characterized
by posing exceptionally high biodiversity. For example the total area of these 25 hot spots cover 1.4%
of the total land area, support 44% of plant and 35% terrestrial vertebrates

Among the 25 hot spots of the world, 2 are found in India namely western ghats and the eastern
Himalayas. These two areas of the country are exceptionally rich in flowering plants, reptiles,
amphibians, butterflies and some species of mammals.

The eastern Himalayan hot spot extends to the north – eastern India and Bhutan. The temperate
forests are found at an altitude of 1780 to 3500 m. Many deep and semi - isolated valleys are
exceptionally rich in endemic plant species.

The Western Ghat region lies parallel to the western coast of Indian peninsula for almost1600 km, in
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. These forests at low elevation (500 m above mean
 Bio-Diversity 4

sea level) are mostly evergreen, while those at 500- 1500 m height are generally semi-evergreen
forests.

What do you understand by biological diversity?

Sum total of all the variety of living organisms on earth constitute biological diversity.

List the various levels of biodiversity

Genetic, species and ecological biodiversity.

Name the two hot spots in India.

Western ghats and eastern Himalayas

Name the most abundant (i) group of plants and (ii) group of animal recorded in India.

(i)Angiosperms (ii) Arthropods

WHY IS BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY IMPORTANT

Humans depend for their sustenance, health, wellbeing and cultural growth on nature. Biotic
resources provide food, fruit, seed, fodder, medicines and a host of other goods and services.

The value of biological diversity The various benefits of biological diversity can be grouped under
three categories: a) ecosystem services, b) biological resources, and c) social benefits

Ecosystem services

Living organisms provide many ecological services free of cost that are responsible for maintaining
ecosystem health. Thus biodiversity is essential for the maintenance and sustainable utilization of
goods and services from ecological system as well as from individual species.

i) Protection of water resources: Natural vegetation cover helps in maintaining hydrological cycles,
regulating and stabilizing water run-off and acting as a buffer against extreme events such as floods
and droughts.

ii) Soil protection: Biological diversity helps in the conservation of soil and retention of moisture and
nutrients. Clearing large areas of vegetation cover has been often seen to accelerate soil erosion,
reduce its productivity and often result in flash floods.

iii) Nutrient storage and cycling: Ecosystem perform the vital function of recycling nutrients found in
the atmosphere as well as in the soil. Plants are able to take up nutrients, and these nutrients then
can form the basis of food chains, to be used by a wide range of life forms. Nutrients in the soil, in
turn, is replenished by dead or waste matter which is transformed by micro-organisms; this may then
feed others such as earthworms which also mix and aerate the soil and make nutrients more readily
available.
 Bio-Diversity 5

iv) Pollution reduction: Ecosystems and ecological processes play an important role in maintenance of
gaseous composition of the atmosphere, breakdown of wastes and removal of pollutants.

v) Climate stability: Vegetation influences climate at macro as well as micro levels. Growing evidence
suggests that undisturbed forests help to maintain the rainfall in the vicinity by recycling water vapor at
a steady rate back into the atmosphere. Vegetation also exerts moderating influence on micro climate.
Cooling effect of vegetation is a common experience which makes living comfortable. Some
organisms are dependent on such microclimates for their existence.

vi) Maintenance of ecological processes: Different species of birds and predators help to control
insect pests, thus reduce the need and cost of artificial control measures. Birds and nectar–loving
insects which roost and breed in natural habitats are important pollinating agents of crop and wild
plants. Some habitats protect crucial life stages of wildlife populations such as spawning areas in
mangroves and wetlands.

Without ecological services provided by biodiversity it would not be possible to get food, pure air to
breathe and would be submerged in the waste produced.

Biological resources of economic importance

i) Food, fibre, medicines, fuel wood and ornamental plants: Five thousand plant species are known to
have been used as food by humans. Presently about 20 species feed the majority of the world’s
population and just 3 or 4 only are the major staple crops to majority of population in the world. A large
number of plants and animals materials are used for the treatment of various ailments. The usage of
medicinal plants in India has an ancient history, dating back to the pre-vedic culture, at least 4000
years B. C. The therapeutic values of herbal medicines led to evolution of Ayurveda which means
“science of life”. It is estimated that at least 70 % of the country’s population rely on herbal medicines
and over 7000 species of plants are used for medicinal purposes. Wood is a basic commodity used
worldwide for making furniture and for building purposes. Fire wood is the primary source of fuel
widely used in third world countries. Wood and bamboo are used for making paper. Plants are the
traditional source of fibre such as coir, hemp, flax, cotton, jute.

ii) Breeding material for crop improvement: Wild relatives of cultivated crop plants contain valuable
genes that are of immense genetic value in crop improvement programmes. Genetic material or
genes of wild crop plants are used to develop new varieties of cultivated crop plants for restructuring
of the existing ones for improving yield or resistance of crops plants.

Social benefits

i) Recreation: Forests, wildlife, national parks and sanctuaries, garden and aquaria have high
entertainment and recreation value. Ecotourism, photography, painting, film making and literary
activities are closely related.

ii) Cultural values: Plants and animals are important part of the cultural life of humans. Human
cultures have co-evolved with their environment and biological diversity can be impart a distinct
cultural identity to different communities.

UNIQUENESS OF INDIAN BIODIVERSITY AND ASSOCIATED REGIONAL SPECIFICITY

 Bio-Diversity 6

The trans-Himalayan region with its sparse vegetation has the richest wild sheep and goat community
in the world. The snow leopard (Panthera uncia) and Black-necked Crane (Grus nigricollis) are found
here. The Great Indian Bustard (Ardeotis nigriceps) which is highly endangered bird, is found in
(Gujrat) region, rich in extensive grasslands. North-east India is one of the richest regions of
biodiversity in the country. It is especially rich in orchids, bamboos, ferns, citrus, banana, mango and
jute. India is also rich in coral reefs. Major reef formations in Indian seas occur in the Gulf of Mannar,
Palk Bay, Gulf of Kutch, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the Lakshadweep. The threat to
mangroves trees (growing in marshy lands) and coral reefs comes from the biotic pressure such as
extraction for market demands, fishing, land-use changes in surrounding areas, and from pollution of
water etc.

CAUSES OF BIODIVERSITY DEPLETION

Loss of species is a serious cause of concern for human survival. It has been observed that 79
species of mammals, 44 of birds, 15 of reptiles and 3 of amphibians are threatened. Nearly 1500
species of plants are endangered in India. The threat to survival or loss may be caused in the
following three ways:

• Direct ways: Deforestation, hunting, poaching, commercial exploitation.

• Indirect ways: Loss or modification of the natural habitats, introduction of exotic species, pollution,
etc.

• Natural causes - Climate change.

Among these causes, habitat destruction and over-exploitation are the main

(i) Habitat (natural home) destruction may result from clearing and burning forests, draining and filling
of wetlands, converting natural areas for agricultural or industrial uses, human settlements, mines,
building of roads and other developmental projects. This way the natural habitats of organisms are
changed or destroyed. These change either kill or force out may species from the area causing
disruption of interactions among the species. Fragmentation of large forest tracts (eg. the corridores)
affects the species occupying the deeper part of the forest and are first to disappear. Apart from the
direct loss of species during the development activities, the new environment is unsuitable for the
species to survive. Over exploitation reduces the size of the population of a species and may push it
towards extinction.

(ii) Introduction of exotic species: Seeds catch on people’s clothes. Mice, rats and birds hitch-hike on
ships. When such species land in new places, they breed extra fast due to absence of any enemy and
often wipe out the native species already present there. Exotic species (new species entering
geographical region) may wipe out the native ones. A few examples are-

Nile perch, an exotic predatory fish introduced into Lake Victoria (South Africa) threatened the entire
ecosystem of the lake by eliminating several native species of the small Cichlid fish that were endemic
to this freshwater aquatic system
 Bio-Diversity 7

(iii) Pollution: Air pollution, acid rain destroy forests. Water pollution kills fishes and other aquatic
plants and animals. Toxic and hazardous substances drained into waterways kill aquatic life. Oil spills
kill coastal birds, plants and other marine animals. Plastic trash entangles wildlife

(iv) Population growth and poverty - generate continuous pressure resulting in over-exploitation and
loss of biodiversity.

The Ordinance amends Section 5(8) the TRAI Act, 1997, which points out that the
"chairperson or any other member ceasing to hold office as such, shall (a) be
ineligible for further employment under the central government or any state
government, or (b) not accept any commercial employment, for a period of two years
from the date he ceases to hold such office."

Species are classified by the IUCN Red List into nine groups,[15] set through criteria such as rate of decline,
population size, area of geographic distribution, and degree of population and distribution fragmentation.

The World Conservation Union (IUCN) (formerly known as International Union for the Conservation of
Nature and Natural Resources, IUCN) has recognized eight Red List categories according to the
conservation status of species

 Extinct (EX) – No known individuals remaining.

 Extinct in the Wild (EW) – Known only to survive in captivity, or as a naturalized population outside
its historic range.

 Critically Endangered (CR) – Extremely high risk of extinction in the wild.

 Endangered (EN) – High risk of extinction in the wild.

 Vulnerable (VU) – High risk of endangerment in the wild.

 Near Threatened (NT) – Likely to become endangered in the near future.

 Least Concern (LC) – Lowest risk. Does not qualify for a more at risk category. Widespread and
abundant taxa are included in this category.

 Data Deficient (DD) – Not enough data to make an assessment of its risk of extinction.

 Not Evaluated (NE) – Has not yet been evaluated against the criteria.

CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY

Conservation is the planned management of natural resources, to retain the balance in nature and
retain the diversity. It also includes wise use of natural resources in such a way that the needs of
present generation are met and at the same time leaving enough for the future generations.
Conservation of biodiversity is important to:-

prevent the loss of genetic diversity of a species,

 Bio-Diversity 8

save a species from becoming extinct, and

protect ecosystems damage and degradation.

CONSERVATION STRATEGIES

Conservation efforts can be grouped into the following two categories:

1. In-situ (on-site) conservation includes the protection of plants and animals within their natural
habitats or in protected areas. Protected areas are land or sea dedicated to protect and maintain
biodiversity.

2. Ex-situ (off-site) conservation of plants and animals outside their natural habitats. These include
botanical gardens, zoo, gene banks, seek bank, tissue culture and cryopreservation.

1 In-situ methods

i) Protection of habitat: The main strategy for conservation of species is the protection of habitats in
representative ecosystems. Currently, India has ninety six National Parks, five hundred Wildlife
Sanctuaries, thirteen Biosphere Reserves, twenty seven Tiger Reserves and eleven Elephant
Reserves covering an area of 15.67 million hectares or 4.7 % of the geographical area of the country.
Twenty one wetlands, thirty mangrove areas and four coral reef areas have been identified for
intensive conservation and management purposes by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt.
of India.

National parks and sanctuaries

India is unique in the richness and diversity of its vegetation and wildlife. India’s national parks and
wildlife sanctuaries (including bird sanctuaries) are situated Ladakh in Himalayas to Southern tip of
Tamil Nadu with its rich bio-diversity and heritage. Wildlife sanctuaries in India attract people from all
over the world as the rarest of rare species are found here.

Some of the main sanctuaries in India are:

The Jim Corbett Tiger Reserve- Uttaranchal, Kanha National Park, Madhya Pradesh, Bandhavgarh
National Park- Madhya Pradesh, Ranthambhor National Park-Sawai Madhopur, Gir National Park-
Sasangir (Gujarat) etc.

Wildlife lovers eager to see magnificent Bird Sancturaty at Bharatpur, Rajasthan as it is the second
habitat in the world that is visited by the Siberian Cranes in winter and it provides a vast breeding area
for the native water birds, Great Indian bustard is found in the Indian deserts. In wesern Himalayas,
one can see birds like Himalayan monal pheasant, western tragopanm koklass, white crested khalij
pheasant, griffon vultures, lammergiers, choughs, ravens. In the Andaman and Nicobar region, about
250 species and subspecies of birds are found, such as rare Narcondum horn bill, Nicobar pigeon and
megapode. While the national parks and sanctuaries in South India, too. For e.g. Madumalai in Tamil
Nadu and Bandipur Tiger Reserve and Nagahole National Park in Karnataka

Many National Parks and Sancturies have been established to preserve wildlife in their

natural environment. Some of them are given below along with important species found
 Bio-Diversity 9

there.

• Kaziranga sanctuary (Assam) – One-horned rhinoceros

• Manas sanctuary (Assam) – Wild buffaloes

• Gir forest (Gujarat) – Lions, chital, sambar, wild bears

• Kelameru bird sanctuary (Andhra Pradesh) – Pelicans and marine birds

• Dachigam sanctuary (Jammu and Kashmir) – Kashmir stags, Himalayan tahr, wild goats, sheep,
antelopes.

• Bandipur sanctuary (Karnataka) – Indian bison, elephants, langurs

• Periyar sanctuary (Kerala) – Elephants, barking deer, sambhar

• Kanha National Park (Madhya Pradesh) – Tiger, leopards, wild dogs

• Simipal National Park (Orissa) – Mangroves, marine turtles lay eggs

• Bharatpur bird sanctuary (Rajasthan) – Ducks, herons

• Corbett National Park (Uttaranchal) –Tigers, barking deer, sambar, wild bear, rhesus monkey.

• Jaladpara sanctuary (West Bengal) – Rhinoceros

Biosphere Reserves

These are representative parts of natural and cultural landscapes extending over large areas of
terrestrial or coastal/marine ecosystems which are internationally recognized within UNESCO’s Man
and the Biosphere Programme Thirteen biodiversity- rich representative ecosystems , largely within
the forest land ( total area – 53,000 sq. km. ), have been designated as Biosphere Reserves in India.
shown in Figure –
 Bio-Diversity 10

The concept of Biosphere Reserves (BR) was launched in 1975 as a part of UNESCO’s Man and
Biosphere Programme, dealing with the conservation of ecosystems and the genetic material they
contain. A Biosphere Reserve consists of core, buffer and transition zones. (a) The core zone is fully
protected and natural area of the Biosphere Reserve least disturbed by human activities. It is legally
protected ecosystem in which entry is not allowed except with permission for some special purpose.
Destructive sampling for scientific investigations is prohibited. (b) The buffer zone surrounds the core
zone and is managed to accommodate a greater variety of resource use strategies, and research and
educational activities. (c) the transition zone, the outermost part of the Biosphere Reserve, is an area
of active cooperation between the reserve management and the local people, wherein activities like
settlements, cropping, forestry , recreation and other economic that are in harmony with the
conservation goals. Till date there were 553 biosphere reserves located in 107 countries
 Bio-Diversity 11

The main functions of the biosphere reserves are:

(1) Conservation

(2) Development

(3) Scientific research, monitoring and education

(4) Species-oriented projects :- Project Tiger, Project Elephant and Project crocodile are examples
of focusing on single species through conserving their habitats.

Project Tiger – A success in species conservation

The Project Tiger in 1973 with the objective of conserving and rescuing this species from extinction. In
2007, there were more than 40 Project Tiger wildlife reserves covering an area of 37,761 km². Project
Tiger helped to increase the population of these tigers from 1,200 in the 1970s to 3,500 in 1990s.
However, a 2008 census held by Government of India revealed that the tiger population had dropped
to 1,411. A total ban has been imposed on hunting of tigers and trading in tiger products at the
national and international levels.

Project Elephant

Project Elephant was launched in February, 1992 to assist states having free ranging populations of
wild elephants to ensure long-term survival of identified viable populations of elephants in their natural
habitats. The project is being implemented in twelve states viz. Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh,
Assam, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Orissa, Tamil Nadu Uttaranchal and
West Bengal.

Crocodile breeding and management project

This project was started in 1976 with FAO - UNDP assistance to save three endangered crocodilian
species, namely, the fresh water crocodile, salt water crocodile and the rare gharial. The project
 Bio-Diversity 12

surveyed the crocodile habitats and facilitated their protection through declaration of sanctuaries and
National Parks. Captive breeding and reintroduction or restocking programmes involved careful
collection of eggs from the wild. Thousands of crocodiles of three species have been reared at sixteen
centres and several of these have been released in the wild. Eleven sanctuaries have been declared
specially for crocodile protection including the National Chambal Sanctuary in Madhya Pradesh.

Khecheopalri lake in Sikkim, have been declared sacred by the people, leading to protection of
aquatic flora and fauna.

Ex-situ Conservation

(i) Botanical gardens, zoos, etc. To complement in-situ conservation efforts, ex-situ conservation is
being undertaken through setting up botanic gardens, zoos, medicinal plant parks, etc by various
agencies. The Indian Botanical Garden in Howrah (West Bengal) is over 200 years old. Other
important botanical gardens are in Ooty, Bangalore and Lucknow. The most recent one is The
Botanical Garden of Indian Republic established at NOIDA, near Delhi in April, 2002. The main
objectives of this garden are –

• ex-situ conservation and propagation of important threatened plant species,

• serve as a Centre of Excellence for conservation., research and training,

• build public awareness through education on plant diversity and need for conservation.

A number of zoos have been developed in the country. These zoological parks have been looked
upon essentially as centres of education about animal species and recreation. They have also played
an important role in the conservation of endangered animal species such as the Manipur Thamin
Deer, and the White winged Wood Duck. Notable successful examples of captive breeding are
those of Gangetic gharial, turtles and the white tiger.

Gene Banks : Ex-situ collection and preservation of genetic resources is done through gene banks
and seed banks The National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), New Delhi preserves
seeds of wild relatives of crop plants as well as cultivated varieties; the National Bureau of Animal
Genetic Resources at Karnal, Haryana maintains the genetic material for domesticated animals, and
the National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources, Lucknow for fishes.

Cryopreservation: (“freeze preservation”) is particularly useful for conserving vegetative propagated

crops. Cryopreservation is the storage of material at ultra low temperature of liquid nitrogen (-196C),
Cryopreservation has been successfully applied to meristems, zygotic and somatic embryos, pollen,
protoplasts cells and suspension cultures of a number of plant species.

Cloned DNA and material having DNA in its native state can all be used for genetic conservation.
Furthermore, non-viable material representing valuable genotypes stored in gene banks can all be
used as sources of DNA libraries from where a relevant gene or a combination of genes can be
recovered.
 Bio-Diversity 13

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), which it signed on 29th December, 1993 at Rio de Janeiro
during the Earth Summit. The Convention has three key objectives:

1. Conservation of biological diversity,

2 Sustainable use of biodiversity and

3. Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources.

Biological Diversity Act, 2002

• This Act provides for setting up of a National Biodiversity Authority (NBA), State Biodiversity Boards
(SBB) and Biodiversity Management Committees (BMC) in local bodies.

• All foreign nationals organizations require prior approval of NBA for obtaining biological resources
and/or associated knowledge for any use.

• Similarly, Indian nationals or organizations will require to give prior intimation to the concerned SBB
about any biological resources being imported for commercial use. The SBB may prohibit the import if
found to violate the objectives of conservation, sustainable use and benefit sharing.

• However, local people and communities of the area, including Vaids and Hakims will have free
access to use biological resources within the country for their own use, medicinal purposes and
research.

• While granting approvals, NBA will impose terms and conditions to secure equitable sharing of
benefits.

• There is a enabling provision for setting up a framework for protecting traditional knowledge.

• The monetary benefits, fees and royalties, as a result of approvals by NBA are to be deposited in
National Biodiversity Fund which will be used for conservation and development of areas from where
the resource has been accessed, in consultation with local self government.

• World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and World Conservation Union supports projects to promote
conservation and appropriate development of Biosphere Reserves.

Convention on International Trade in Endanger Species of Wild Fauna and Flora = CITES