Computer science

Computer science is the study of computation, information, and automation. [1][2][3]

Computer
science spans theoretical disciplines (such as algorithms, theory of computation, and
information theory) to applied disciplines (including the design and implementation of
hardware and software).[4][5][6]

Fundamental areas of computer

science

Programming language Computational

theory complexity
theory

Artificial intelligence Computer architecture

Algorithms and data structures are central to computer science.[7] The theory of computation
concerns abstract models of computation and general classes of problems that can be solved
using them. The fields of cryptography and computer security involve studying the means for
secure communication and preventing security vulnerabilities. Computer graphics and
computational geometry address the generation of images. Programming language theory
considers different ways to describe computational processes, and database theory concerns
the management of repositories of data. Human–computer interaction investigates the
interfaces through which humans and computers interact, and software engineering focuses
on the design and principles behind developing software. Areas such as operating systems,
networks and embedded systems investigate the principles and design behind complex
systems. Computer architecture describes the construction of computer components and
computer-operated equipment. Artificial intelligence and machine learning aim to synthesize
goal-orientated processes such as problem-solving, decision-making, environmental
adaptation, planning and learning found in humans and animals. Within artificial intelligence,
computer vision aims to understand and process image and video data, while natural
language processing aims to understand and process textual and linguistic data.
The fundamental concern of computer science is determining what can and cannot be
automated.[2][8][3][9][10] The Turing Award is generally recognized as the highest distinction in
computer science.[11][12]

History

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz

(1646–1716) developed
logic in a binary number
system and has been
called the "founder of
computer science".[13]

Charles Babbage is
sometimes referred to as
the "father of
computing".[14]
 Ada Lovelace published the
first algorithm intended for
processing on a
computer.[15]

The earliest foundations of what would become computer science predate the invention of
the modern digital computer. Machines for calculating fixed numerical tasks such as the
abacus have existed since antiquity, aiding in computations such as multiplication and
division. Algorithms for performing computations have existed since antiquity, even before
the development of sophisticated computing equipment.[16]

Wilhelm Schickard designed and constructed the first working mechanical calculator in
1623.[17] In 1673, Gottfried Leibniz demonstrated a digital mechanical calculator, called the
Stepped Reckoner.[18] Leibniz may be considered the first computer scientist and information
theorist, because of various reasons, including the fact that he documented the binary
number system. In 1820, Thomas de Colmar launched the mechanical calculator
industry[note 1] when he invented his simplified arithmometer, the first calculating machine
strong enough and reliable enough to be used daily in an office environment. Charles
Babbage started the design of the first automatic mechanical calculator, his Difference
Engine, in 1822, which eventually gave him the idea of the first programmable mechanical
calculator, his Analytical Engine.[19] He started developing this machine in 1834, and "in less
than two years, he had sketched out many of the salient features of the modern
computer".[20] "A crucial step was the adoption of a punched card system derived from the
Jacquard loom"[20] making it infinitely programmable.[note 2] In 1843, during the translation of a
French article on the Analytical Engine, Ada Lovelace wrote, in one of the many notes she
included, an algorithm to compute the Bernoulli numbers, which is considered to be the first
published algorithm ever specifically tailored for implementation on a computer.[21] Around
1885, Herman Hollerith invented the tabulator, which used punched cards to process
statistical information; eventually his company became part of IBM. Following Babbage,
although unaware of his earlier work, Percy Ludgate in 1909 published[22] the 2nd of the only
two designs for mechanical analytical engines in history. In 1914, the Spanish engineer
Leonardo Torres Quevedo published his Essays on Automatics,[23] and designed, inspired by
Babbage, a theoretical electromechanical calculating machine which was to be controlled by
a read-only program. The paper also introduced the idea of floating-point arithmetic.[24][25] In
1920, to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the invention of the arithmometer, Torres
presented in Paris the Electromechanical Arithmometer, a prototype that demonstrated the
feasibility of an electromechanical analytical engine,[26] on which commands could be typed
and the results printed automatically.[27] In 1937, one hundred years after Babbage's
impossible dream, Howard Aiken convinced IBM, which was making all kinds of punched
card equipment and was also in the calculator business[28] to develop his giant programmable
calculator, the ASCC/Harvard Mark I, based on Babbage's Analytical Engine, which itself used
cards and a central computing unit. When the machine was finished, some hailed it as
"Babbage's dream come true".[29]

During the 1940s, with the development of new and more powerful computing machines such
as the Atanasoff–Berry computer and ENIAC, the term computer came to refer to the
machines rather than their human predecessors.[30] As it became clear that computers could
be used for more than just mathematical calculations, the field of computer science
broadened to study computation in general. In 1945, IBM founded the Watson Scientific
Computing Laboratory at Columbia University in New York City. The renovated fraternity
house on Manhattan's West Side was IBM's first laboratory devoted to pure science. The lab
is the forerunner of IBM's Research Division, which today operates research facilities around
the world.[31] Ultimately, the close relationship between IBM and Columbia University was
instrumental in the emergence of a new scientific discipline, with Columbia offering one of the
first academic-credit courses in computer science in 1946.[32] Computer science began to be
established as a distinct academic discipline in the 1950s and early 1960s.[33][34] The world's
first computer science degree program, the Cambridge Diploma in Computer Science, began
at the University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory in 1953. The first computer science
department in the United States was formed at Purdue University in 1962.[35] Since practical
computers became available, many applications of computing have become distinct areas of
study in their own rights.

Etymology and scope

Although first proposed in 1956,[36] the term "computer science" appears in a 1959 article in
Communications of the ACM,[37] in which Louis Fein argues for the creation of a Graduate
School in Computer Sciences analogous to the creation of Harvard Business School in
1921.[38] Louis justifies the name by arguing that, like management science, the subject is
applied and interdisciplinary in nature, while having the characteristics typical of an academic
discipline.[37] His efforts, and those of others such as numerical analyst George Forsythe,
were rewarded: universities went on to create such departments, starting with Purdue in
1962.[39] Despite its name, a significant amount of computer science does not involve the
study of computers themselves. Because of this, several alternative names have been
proposed.[40] Certain departments of major universities prefer the term computing science, to
emphasize precisely that difference. Danish scientist Peter Naur suggested the term
datalogy,[41] to reflect the fact that the scientific discipline revolves around data and data
treatment, while not necessarily involving computers. The first scientific institution to use the
term was the Department of Datalogy at the University of Copenhagen, founded in 1969, with
Peter Naur being the first professor in datalogy. The term is used mainly in the Scandinavian
countries. An alternative term, also proposed by Naur, is data science; this is now used for a
multi-disciplinary field of data analysis, including statistics and databases.

In the early days of computing, a number of terms for the practitioners of the field of
computing were suggested (albeit facetiously) in the Communications of the ACM—
turingineer, turologist, flow-charts-man, applied meta-mathematician, and applied
epistemologist.[42] Three months later in the same journal, comptologist was suggested,
followed next year by hypologist.[43] The term computics has also been suggested.[44] In
Europe, terms derived from contracted translations of the expression "automatic information"
(e.g. "informazione automatica" in Italian) or "information and mathematics" are often used,
e.g. informatique (French), Informatik (German), informatica (Italian, Dutch), informática
(Spanish, Portuguese), informatika (Slavic languages and Hungarian) or pliroforiki
(πληροφορική, which means informatics) in Greek. Similar words have also been adopted in
the UK (as in the School of Informatics, University of Edinburgh).[45] "In the U.S., however,
informatics is linked with applied computing, or computing in the context of another
domain."[46]

A folkloric quotation, often attributed to—but almost certainly not first formulated by—Edsger
Dijkstra, states that "computer science is no more about computers than astronomy is about
telescopes."[note 3] The design and deployment of computers and computer systems is
generally considered the province of disciplines other than computer science. For example,
the study of computer hardware is usually considered part of computer engineering, while the
study of commercial computer systems and their deployment is often called information
technology or information systems. However, there has been exchange of ideas between the
various computer-related disciplines. Computer science research also often intersects other
disciplines, such as cognitive science, linguistics, mathematics, physics, biology, Earth
science, statistics, philosophy, and logic.

Computer science is considered by some to have a much closer relationship with

mathematics than many scientific disciplines, with some observers saying that computing is a
mathematical science.[33] Early computer science was strongly influenced by the work of
mathematicians such as Kurt Gödel, Alan Turing, John von Neumann, Rózsa Péter and Alonzo
Church and there continues to be a useful interchange of ideas between the two fields in
areas such as mathematical logic, category theory, domain theory, and algebra.[36]

The relationship between computer science and software engineering is a contentious issue,
which is further muddied by disputes over what the term "software engineering" means, and
how computer science is defined.[47] David Parnas, taking a cue from the relationship
between other engineering and science disciplines, has claimed that the principal focus of
computer science is studying the properties of computation in general, while the principal
focus of software engineering is the design of specific computations to achieve practical
goals, making the two separate but complementary disciplines.[48]

The academic, political, and funding aspects of computer science tend to depend on whether
a department is formed with a mathematical emphasis or with an engineering emphasis.
Computer science departments with a mathematics emphasis and with a numerical
orientation consider alignment with computational science. Both types of departments tend to
make efforts to bridge the field educationally if not across all research.

Philosophy

Epistemology of computer science

Despite the word science in its name, there is debate over whether or not computer science is
a discipline of science,[49] mathematics,[50] or engineering.[51] Allen Newell and Herbert A.
Simon argued in 1975,

Computer science is an empirical discipline. We would have called it an

experimental science, but like astronomy, economics, and geology, some of its
unique forms of observation and experience do not fit a narrow stereotype of the
experimental method. Nonetheless, they are experiments. Each new machine that is
built is an experiment. Actually constructing the machine poses a question to
 nature; and we listen for the answer by observing the machine in operation and
analyzing it by all analytical and measurement means available.[51]

It has since been argued that computer science can be classified as an empirical science
since it makes use of empirical testing to evaluate the correctness of programs, but a
problem remains in defining the laws and theorems of computer science (if any exist) and
defining the nature of experiments in computer science.[51] Proponents of classifying
computer science as an engineering discipline argue that the reliability of computational
systems is investigated in the same way as bridges in civil engineering and airplanes in
aerospace engineering.[51] They also argue that while empirical sciences observe what
presently exists, computer science observes what is possible to exist and while scientists
discover laws from observation, no proper laws have been found in computer science and it
is instead concerned with creating phenomena.[51]

Proponents of classifying computer science as a mathematical discipline argue that computer

programs are physical realizations of mathematical entities and programs that can be
deductively reasoned through mathematical formal methods.[51] Computer scientists Edsger
W. Dijkstra and Tony Hoare regard instructions for computer programs as mathematical
sentences and interpret formal semantics for programming languages as mathematical
axiomatic systems.[51]

Paradigms of computer science

A number of computer scientists have argued for the distinction of three separate paradigms
in computer science. Peter Wegner argued that those paradigms are science, technology,
and mathematics.[52] Peter Denning's working group argued that they are theory, abstraction
(modeling), and design.[33] Amnon H. Eden described them as the "rationalist paradigm"
(which treats computer science as a branch of mathematics, which is prevalent in theoretical
computer science, and mainly employs deductive reasoning), the "technocratic paradigm"
(which might be found in engineering approaches, most prominently in software engineering),
and the "scientific paradigm" (which approaches computer-related artifacts from the
empirical perspective of natural sciences,[53] identifiable in some branches of artificial
intelligence).[54] Computer science focuses on methods involved in design, specification,
programming, verification, implementation and testing of human-made computing
systems.[55]
Fields

As a discipline, computer science spans a range of topics from theoretical studies of

algorithms and the limits of computation to the practical issues of implementing computing
systems in hardware and software.[56][57] CSAB, formerly called Computing Sciences
Accreditation Board—which is made up of representatives of the Association for Computing
Machinery (ACM), and the IEEE Computer Society (IEEE CS)[58]—identifies four areas that it
considers crucial to the discipline of computer science: theory of computation, algorithms and
data structures, programming methodology and languages, and computer elements and
architecture. In addition to these four areas, CSAB also identifies fields such as software
engineering, artificial intelligence, computer networking and communication, database
systems, parallel computation, distributed computation, human–computer interaction,
computer graphics, operating systems, and numerical and symbolic computation as being
important areas of computer science.[56]

Theoretical computer science

Theoretical computer science is mathematical and abstract in spirit, but it derives its
motivation from practical and everyday computation. It aims to understand the nature of
computation and, as a consequence of this understanding, provide more efficient
methodologies.

Theory of computation
According to Peter Denning, the fundamental question underlying computer science is, "What
can be automated?"[3] Theory of computation is focused on answering fundamental
questions about what can be computed and what amount of resources are required to
perform those computations. In an effort to answer the first question, computability theory
examines which computational problems are solvable on various theoretical models of
computation. The second question is addressed by computational complexity theory, which
studies the time and space costs associated with different approaches to solving a multitude
of computational problems.

The famous P = NP? problem, one of the Millennium Prize Problems,[59] is an open problem in
the theory of computation.
 Computability Computational
Automata theory Formal languages
theory complexity theory

Models of Quantum Logic circuit

Cellular automata
computation computing theory theory

Information and coding theory

Information theory, closely related to probability and statistics, is related to the quantification
of information. This was developed by Claude Shannon to find fundamental limits on signal
processing operations such as compressing data and on reliably storing and communicating
data.[60] Coding theory is the study of the properties of codes (systems for converting
information from one form to another) and their fitness for a specific application. Codes are
used for data compression, cryptography, error detection and correction, and more recently
also for network coding. Codes are studied for the purpose of designing efficient and reliable
data transmission methods. [61]

Coding Channel Algorithmic Signal detection Kolmogorov

theory capacity information theory theory complexity

Data structures and algorithms

Data structures and algorithms are the studies of commonly used computational methods
and their computational efficiency.
 O(n2)

Analysis of Algorithm Data Combinatorial Computational Randomized

algorithms design structures optimization geometry algorithms

Programming language theory and formal methods

Programming language theory is a branch of computer science that deals with the design,
implementation, analysis, characterization, and classification of programming languages and
their individual features. It falls within the discipline of computer science, both depending on
and affecting mathematics, software engineering, and linguistics. It is an active research
area, with numerous dedicated academic journals.

Formal methods are a particular kind of mathematically based technique for the specification,
development and verification of software and hardware systems.[62] The use of formal
methods for software and hardware design is motivated by the expectation that, as in other
engineering disciplines, performing appropriate mathematical analysis can contribute to the
reliability and robustness of a design. They form an important theoretical underpinning for
software engineering, especially where safety or security is involved. Formal methods are a
useful adjunct to software testing since they help avoid errors and can also give a framework
for testing. For industrial use, tool support is required. However, the high cost of using formal
methods means that they are usually only used in the development of high-integrity and life-
critical systems, where safety or security is of utmost importance. Formal methods are best
described as the application of a fairly broad variety of theoretical computer science
fundamentals, in particular logic calculi, formal languages, automata theory, and program
semantics, but also type systems and algebraic data types to problems in software and
hardware specification and verification.
 Automated
Formal Type Compiler Programming Formal
theorem
semantics theory design languages verification
proving

Applied computer science

Computer graphics and visualization
Computer graphics is the study of digital visual contents and involves the synthesis and
manipulation of image data. The study is connected to many other fields in computer science,
including computer vision, image processing, and computational geometry, and is heavily
applied in the fields of special effects and video games.

2D computer Computer Mixed Virtual Solid

Rendering
graphics animation reality reality modeling

Image and sound processing

Information can take the form of images, sound, video or other multimedia. Bits of information
can be streamed via signals. Its processing is the central notion of informatics, the European
view on computing, which studies information processing algorithms independently of the
type of information carrier – whether it is electrical, mechanical or biological. This field plays
important role in information theory, telecommunications, information engineering and has
applications in medical image computing and speech synthesis, among others. What is the
lower bound on the complexity of fast Fourier transform algorithms? is one of the unsolved
problems in theoretical computer science.
 Medical
FFT Image Speech Data Speech
image
algorithms processing recognition compression synthesis
computing

Computational science, finance and engineering

Scientific computing (or computational science) is the field of study concerned with
constructing mathematical models and quantitative analysis techniques and using computers
to analyze and solve scientific problems. A major usage of scientific computing is simulation
of various processes, including computational fluid dynamics, physical, electrical, and
electronic systems and circuits, as well as societies and social situations (notably war games)
along with their habitats, among many others. Modern computers enable optimization of such
designs as complete aircraft. Notable in electrical and electronic circuit design are SPICE,[63]
as well as software for physical realization of new (or modified) designs. The latter includes
essential design software for integrated circuits.[64]

Numerical Computational Computational

Bioinformatics Neuroinformatics Psychoinfo
analysis physics chemistry

Human–computer interaction
Human–computer interaction (HCI) is the field of study and research concerned with the
design and use of computer systems, mainly based on the analysis of the interaction between
humans and computer interfaces. HCI has several subfields that focus on the relationship
between emotions, social behavior and brain activity with computers.
 Affective Brain–computer Human- Physical Social
computing interface centered design computing computing

Software engineering
Software engineering is the study of designing, implementing, and modifying the software in
order to ensure it is of high quality, affordable, maintainable, and fast to build. It is a
systematic approach to software design, involving the application of engineering practices to
software. Software engineering deals with the organizing and analyzing of software—it does
not just deal with the creation or manufacture of new software, but its internal arrangement
and maintenance. For example software testing, systems engineering, technical debt and
software development processes.

Artificial intelligence
Artificial intelligence (AI) aims to or is required to synthesize goal-orientated processes such
as problem-solving, decision-making, environmental adaptation, learning, and
communication found in humans and animals. From its origins in cybernetics and in the
Dartmouth Conference (1956), artificial intelligence research has been necessarily cross-
disciplinary, drawing on areas of expertise such as applied mathematics, symbolic logic,
semiotics, electrical engineering, philosophy of mind, neurophysiology, and social
intelligence. AI is associated in the popular mind with robotic development, but the main field
of practical application has been as an embedded component in areas of software
development, which require computational understanding. The starting point in the late 1940s
was Alan Turing's question "Can computers think?", and the question remains effectively
unanswered, although the Turing test is still used to assess computer output on the scale of
human intelligence. But the automation of evaluative and predictive tasks has been
increasingly successful as a substitute for human monitoring and intervention in domains of
computer application involving complex real-world data.
 Computational Planning and
Computer vision Neural networks
learning theory scheduling

Natural language Computational game Evolutionary Autonomic

processing theory computation computing

Representation and Swarm

Pattern recognition Robotics
reasoning intelligence

Computer systems
Computer architecture and microarchitecture
Computer architecture, or digital computer organization, is the conceptual design and
fundamental operational structure of a computer system. It focuses largely on the way by
which the central processing unit performs internally and accesses addresses in memory.[65]
Computer engineers study computational logic and design of computer hardware, from
individual processor components, microcontrollers, personal computers to supercomputers
and embedded systems. The term "architecture" in computer literature can be traced to the
work of Lyle R. Johnson and Frederick P. Brooks Jr., members of the Machine Organization
department in IBM's main research center in 1959.
 Processing unit Microarchitecture Multiprocessing Processor design

Ubiquitous computing Systems architecture Operating systems Input/output

Embedded system Real-time computing Dependability Interpreter

Concurrent, parallel and distributed computing

Concurrency is a property of systems in which several computations are executing
simultaneously, and potentially interacting with each other.[66] A number of mathematical
models have been developed for general concurrent computation including Petri nets,
process calculi and the parallel random access machine model.[67] When multiple computers
are connected in a network while using concurrency, this is known as a distributed system.
Computers within that distributed system have their own private memory, and information can
be exchanged to achieve common goals.[68]

Computer networks
This branch of computer science aims to manage networks between computers worldwide.

Computer security and cryptography

Computer security is a branch of computer technology with the objective of protecting
information from unauthorized access, disruption, or modification while maintaining the
accessibility and usability of the system for its intended users.
Historical cryptography is the art of writing and deciphering secret messages. Modern
cryptography is the scientific study of problems relating to distributed computations that can
be attacked.[69] Technologies studied in modern cryptography include symmetric and
asymmetric encryption, digital signatures, cryptographic hash functions, key-agreement
protocols, blockchain, zero-knowledge proofs, and garbled circuits.

Databases and data mining

A database is intended to organize, store, and retrieve large amounts of data easily. Digital
databases are managed using database management systems to store, create, maintain, and
search data, through database models and query languages. Data mining is a process of
discovering patterns in large data sets.

Discoveries

The philosopher of computing Bill Rapaport noted three Great Insights of Computer
Science:[70]

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz's, George Boole's, Alan Turing's, Claude Shannon's, and Samuel
Morse's insight: there are only two objects that a computer has to deal with in order to
represent "anything".[note 4]
All the information about any computable problem can be represented using only 0 and 1
(or any other bistable pair that can flip-flop between two easily distinguishable states,
such as "on/off", "magnetized/de-magnetized", "high-voltage/low-voltage", etc.).

Alan Turing's insight: there are only five actions that a computer has to perform in order to
do "anything".
Every algorithm can be expressed in a language for a computer consisting of only five
basic instructions:[71]
move left one location;

move right one location;

read symbol at current location;

print 0 at current location;

print 1 at current location.

Corrado Böhm and Giuseppe Jacopini's insight: there are only three ways of combining
these actions (into more complex ones) that are needed in order for a computer to do
"anything".[72]
 Only three rules are needed to combine any set of basic instructions into more complex
ones:
sequence: first do this, then do that;

selection: IF such-and-such is the case, THEN do this, ELSE do that;

repetition: WHILE such-and-such is the case, DO this.

The three rules of Boehm's and Jacopini's insight can be further simplified with the use of
goto (which means it is more elementary than structured programming).

Programming paradigms

Programming languages can be used to accomplish different tasks in different ways.

Common programming paradigms include:

Functional programming, a style of building the structure and elements of computer

programs that treats computation as the evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids
state and mutable data. It is a declarative programming paradigm, which means
programming is done with expressions or declarations instead of statements.[73]

Imperative programming, a programming paradigm that uses statements that change a

program's state.[74] In much the same way that the imperative mood in natural languages
expresses commands, an imperative program consists of commands for the computer to
perform. Imperative programming focuses on describing how a program operates.

Object-oriented programming, a programming paradigm based on the concept of

"objects", which may contain data, in the form of fields, often known as attributes; and
code, in the form of procedures, often known as methods. A feature of objects is that an
object's procedures can access and often modify the data fields of the object with which
they are associated. Thus object-oriented computer programs are made out of objects that
interact with one another.[75]

Service-oriented programming, a programming paradigm that uses "services" as the unit of

computer work, to design and implement integrated business applications and mission
critical software programs.

Many languages offer support for multiple paradigms, making the distinction more a matter of
style than of technical capabilities.[76]
Research

Conferences are important events for computer science research. During these conferences,
researchers from the public and private sectors present their recent work and meet. Unlike in
most other academic fields, in computer science, the prestige of conference papers is
greater than that of journal publications.[77][78] One proposed explanation for this is the quick
development of this relatively new field requires rapid review and distribution of results, a task
better handled by conferences than by journals.[79]

See also

Computer science education

Glossary of computer science

List of computer scientists

List of computer science awards

List of pioneers in computer science

Outline of computer science

Notes

1. In 1851

2. "The introduction of punched cards into the new engine was important not only as a
more convenient form of control than the drums, or because programs could now be of
unlimited extent, and could be stored and repeated without the danger of introducing
errors in setting the machine by hand; it was important also because it served to
crystallize Babbage's feeling that he had invented something really new, something
much more than a sophisticated calculating machine." Bruce Collier, 1970

3. See the entry "Computer science" on Wikiquote for the history of this quotation.

4. The word "anything" is written in quotation marks because there are things that
computers cannot do. One example is: to answer the question if an arbitrary given
computer program will eventually finish or run forever (the Halting problem).
References

1. "What is Computer Science?" (https://www.cs.york.ac.uk/undergraduate/what-is-cs/) .

Department of Computer Science, University of York. Archived (https://web.archive.org/
web/20200611230638/https://www.cs.york.ac.uk/undergraduate/what-is-cs/) from
the original on June 11, 2020. Retrieved June 11, 2020.

2. What Can Be Automated? Computer Science and Engineering Research Study (https://m
itpress.mit.edu/books/what-can-be-automated) . Computer Science Series. MIT Press.
1980. ISBN 978-0262010603. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210109021022/ht
tps://mitpress.mit.edu/books/what-can-be-automated) from the original on January 9,
2021.

3. Denning, P.J.; Comer, D.E.; Gries, D.; Mulder, M.C.; Tucker, A.; Turner, A.J.; Young, P.R.
(February 1989). "Computing as a discipline" (https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1983
3) . Computer. 22 (2): 63–70. doi:10.1109/2.19833 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2F2.1983
3) . ISSN 1558-0814 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1558-0814) . Archived (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20220303023329/https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/19833)
from the original on March 3, 2022. Retrieved March 3, 2022. "The discipline of
computing is the systematic study of algorithmic processes that describe and transform
information, their theory, analysis, design, efficiency, implementation, and application.
The fundamental question underlying all of computing is, 'What can be (efficiently)
automated?' "

4. "WordNet Search—3.1" (http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=computer%20

scientist) . WordNet Search. Wordnetweb.princeton.edu. Archived (https://web.archive.
org/web/20171018181122/http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=computer%20
scientist) from the original on October 18, 2017. Retrieved May 14, 2012.

5. "Definition of computer science | Dictionary.com" (https://www.dictionary.com/browse/c

omputer-science) . www.dictionary.com. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20200
611224238/https://www.dictionary.com/browse/computer-science) from the original
on June 11, 2020. Retrieved June 11, 2020.

6. "What is Computer Science? | Undergraduate Computer Science at UMD" (https://under

grad.cs.umd.edu/what-computer-science) . undergrad.cs.umd.edu. Archived (https://
web.archive.org/web/20201127013803/https://undergrad.cs.umd.edu/what-computer-s
cience) from the original on November 27, 2020. Retrieved July 15, 2022.
7. Harel, David (2014). Algorithmics The Spirit of Computing (http://worldcat.org/oclc/87638
4882) . Springer Berlin. ISBN 978-3-642-44135-6. OCLC 876384882 (https://search.w
orldcat.org/oclc/876384882) . Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20200617145021/
https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/876384882) from the original on June 17, 2020.
Retrieved June 17, 2020.

8. Patton, Richard D.; Patton, Peter C. (2009), Nof, Shimon Y. (ed.), "What Can be
Automated? What Cannot be Automated?" (https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-78831-7
_18) , Springer Handbook of Automation, Springer Handbooks, Berlin, Heidelberg:
Springer, pp. 305–313, doi:10.1007/978-3-540-78831-7_18 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2F
978-3-540-78831-7_18) , ISBN 978-3-540-78831-7, archived (https://web.archive.org/
web/20230111224039/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-540-78831-7_1
8) from the original on January 11, 2023, retrieved March 3, 2022

9. Forsythe, George (August 5–10, 1969). "Computer Science and Education". Proceedings
of IFIP Congress 1968. "The question 'What can be automated?' is one of the most
inspiring philosophical and practical questions of contemporary civilization."

10. Knuth, Donald E. (August 1, 1972). "George Forsythe and the development of computer
science" (https://doi.org/10.1145%2F361532.361538) . Communications of the ACM. 15
(8): 721–726. doi:10.1145/361532.361538 (https://doi.org/10.1145%2F361532.361538) .
ISSN 0001-0782 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0001-0782) . S2CID 12512057 (http
s://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:12512057) .

11. Hanson, Vicki L. (January 23, 2017). "Celebrating 50 years of the Turing award" (https://d
oi.org/10.1145%2F3033604) . Communications of the ACM. 60 (2): 5.
doi:10.1145/3033604 (https://doi.org/10.1145%2F3033604) . ISSN 0001-0782 (https://se
arch.worldcat.org/issn/0001-0782) . S2CID 29984960 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/
CorpusID:29984960) .

12. Scott, Eric; Martins, Marcella Scoczynski Ribeiro; Yafrani, Mohamed El; Volz, Vanessa;
Wilson, Dennis G (June 5, 2018). "ACM marks 50 years of the ACM A.M. turing award
and computing's greatest achievements" (https://doi.org/10.1145/3231560.3231563) .
ACM SIGEVOlution. 10 (3): 9–11. doi:10.1145/3231560.3231563 (https://doi.org/10.1145%2
F3231560.3231563) . ISSN 1931-8499 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1931-8499) .
S2CID 47021559 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:47021559) .
13. "2021: 375th birthday of Leibniz, father of computer science" (https://people.idsia.ch/~ju
ergen/leibniz-father-computer-science-375.html) . people.idsia.ch. Archived (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20220921232935/https://people.idsia.ch/~juergen/leibniz-father-co
mputer-science-375.html) from the original on September 21, 2022. Retrieved
February 4, 2023.

14. "Charles Babbage Institute: Who Was Charles Babbage?" (http://www.cbi.umn.edu/abou

t/babbage.html) . cbi.umn.edu. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2007010909334
6/http://www.cbi.umn.edu/about/babbage.html) from the original on January 9, 2007.
Retrieved December 28, 2016.

15. "Ada Lovelace | Babbage Engine | Computer History Museum" (http://www.computerhist

ory.org/babbage/adalovelace/) . www.computerhistory.org. Archived (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20181225024329/http://www.computerhistory.org/babbage/adalovelace/%2
0) from the original on December 25, 2018. Retrieved December 28, 2016.

16. "History of Computer Science" (https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/~shallit/Courses/134/history.html

#:~:text=In%20the%201960%27s,%20computer%20science,person%20to%20receive%2
0a%20Ph.) . cs.uwaterloo.ca. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170729210116/h
ttps://cs.uwaterloo.ca/~shallit/Courses/134/history.html#:~:text=In%20the%201960%27
s,%20computer%20science,person%20to%20receive%20a%20Ph.) from the original
on July 29, 2017. Retrieved July 15, 2022.

17. "Wilhelm Schickard – Ein Computerpionier" (https://web.archive.org/web/20200919014

352/https://www.fmi.uni-jena.de/fmimedia/Fakultaet/Institute+und+Abteilungen/Abteilu
ng+f%C3%BCr+Didaktik/GDI/Wilhelm+Schickard.pdf) (PDF) (in German). Archived
from the original (http://www.fmi.uni-jena.de/fmimedia/Fakultaet/Institute+und+Abteilun
gen/Abteilung+f%C3%BCr+Didaktik/GDI/Wilhelm+Schickard.pdf) (PDF) on September
19, 2020. Retrieved December 4, 2016.

18. Keates, Fiona (June 25, 2012). "A Brief History of Computing" (https://web.archive.org/w
eb/20120629072020/http://blogs.royalsociety.org/history-of-science/2012/06/25/history
-of-computing/) . The Repository. The Royal Society. Archived from the original (http://
blogs.royalsociety.org/history-of-science/2012/06/25/history-of-computing/) on June
29, 2012. Retrieved January 19, 2014.
19. "Science Museum, Babbage's Analytical Engine, 1834–1871 (Trial model)" (https://collect
ion.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/objects/co62245/babbages-analytical-engine-1834-1
871-trial-model-analytical-engines) . Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201908301
23359/https://collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/objects/co62245/babbages-analy
tical-engine-1834-1871-trial-model-analytical-engines) from the original on August 30,
2019. Retrieved May 11, 2020.

20. Hyman, Anthony (1982). Charles Babbage: Pioneer of the Computer. Oxford University
Press. ISBN 978-0691083032.

21. "A Selection and Adaptation From Ada's Notes found in Ada, The Enchantress of
Numbers," by Betty Alexandra Toole Ed.D. Strawberry Press, Mill Valley, CA" (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20060210172109/http://www.scottlan.edu/lriddle/women/ada-love.ht
m) . Archived from the original (http://www.scottlan.edu/Lriddle/women/ada-love.ht
m) on February 10, 2006. Retrieved May 4, 2006.

22. "The John Gabriel Byrne Computer Science Collection" (https://web.archive.org/web/201

90416071721/https://www.scss.tcd.ie/SCSSTreasuresCatalog/miscellany/TCD-SCSS-X.2
0121208.002/TCD-SCSS-X.20121208.002.pdf) (PDF). Archived from the original (http
s://scss.tcd.ie/SCSSTreasuresCatalog/miscellany/TCD-SCSS-X.20121208.002/TCD-SCS
S-X.20121208.002.pdf/) on April 16, 2019. Retrieved August 8, 2019.

23. Torres Quevedo, L. (1914). "Ensayos sobre Automática – Su definicion. Extension teórica
de sus aplicaciones". Revista de la Academia de Ciencias Exacta, 12, pp. 391–418.

24. Torres Quevedo, Leonardo. Automática: Complemento de la Teoría de las Máquinas,

(pdf) (https://quickclick.es/rop/pdf/publico/1914/1914_tomoI_2043_01.pdf) , pp. 575–
583, Revista de Obras Públicas, 19 November 1914.

25. Ronald T. Kneusel. Numbers and Computers (https://books.google.com/books?id=eq4Z

DgAAQBAJ&dq=leonardo+torres+quevedo++electromechanical+machine+essays&pg=
PA84) , Springer, pp. 84–85, 2017. ISBN 978-3319505084

26. Randell, Brian. Digital Computers, History of Origins, (pdf) (https://dl.acm.org/doi/pdf/10.

5555/1074100.1074334) , p. 545, Digital Computers: Origins, Encyclopedia of Computer
Science, January 2003.

27. Randell 1982, p. 6, 11–13.

28. "In this sense Aiken needed IBM, whose technology included the use of punched cards,
the accumulation of numerical data, and the transfer of numerical data from one register
to another", Bernard Cohen, p.44 (2000)
29. Brian Randell, p. 187, 1975

30. The Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) was founded in 1947.

31. "IBM Archives: 1945" (https://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_1945.html) .

Ibm.com. January 23, 2003. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190105013948/htt
ps://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_1945.html) from the original on January 5,
2019. Retrieved March 19, 2019.

32. "IBM100 – The Origins of Computer Science" (https://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/ibm10

0/us/en/icons/compsci/) . Ibm.com. September 15, 1995. Archived (https://web.archive.
org/web/20190105051800/https://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/ibm100/us/en/icons/comps
ci/) from the original on January 5, 2019. Retrieved March 19, 2019.

33. Denning, P.J.; Comer, D.E.; Gries, D.; Mulder, M.C.; Tucker, A.; Turner, A.J.; Young, P.R.
(February 1989). "Computing as a discipline" (https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1983
3) . Computer. 22 (2): 63–70. doi:10.1109/2.19833 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2F2.1983
3) . ISSN 1558-0814 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1558-0814) . Archived (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20220303023329/https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/19833)
from the original on March 3, 2022. Retrieved March 3, 2022.

34. "Some EDSAC statistics" (http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/conference/EDSAC99/statistics.htm

l) . University of Cambridge. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20070903055322/h
ttp://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/conference/EDSAC99/statistics.html) from the original on
September 3, 2007. Retrieved November 19, 2011.

35. "Computer science pioneer Samuel D. Conte dies at 85" (http://www.cs.purdue.edu/abo

ut/conte.html) . Purdue Computer Science. July 1, 2002. Archived (https://web.archive.
org/web/20141006142241/http://www.cs.purdue.edu/about/conte.html) from the
original on October 6, 2014. Retrieved December 12, 2014.

36. Tedre, Matti (2014). The Science of Computing: Shaping a Discipline. Taylor and Francis /
CRC Press.

37. Louis Fine (1960). "The Role of the University in Computers, Data Processing, and
Related Fields" (https://doi.org/10.1145%2F368424.368427) . Communications of the
ACM. 2 (9): 7–14. doi:10.1145/368424.368427 (https://doi.org/10.1145%2F368424.36842
7) . S2CID 6740821 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6740821) .
38. "Stanford University Oral History" (http://library.stanford.edu/guides/stanford-university-
oral-history) . Stanford University. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170404070
555/http://library.stanford.edu/guides/stanford-university-oral-history) from the
original on April 4, 2017. Retrieved May 30, 2013.

39. Donald Knuth (1972). "George Forsythe and the Development of Computer Science" (htt
p://www.stanford.edu/dept/ICME/docs/history/forsythe_knuth.pdf) . Comms. ACM.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20131020200802/http://www.stanford.edu/dept/I
CME/docs/history/forsythe_knuth.pdf) October 20, 2013, at the Wayback Machine

40. Matti Tedre (2006). "The Development of Computer Science: A Sociocultural

Perspective" (http://epublications.uef.fi/pub/urn_isbn_952-458-867-6/urn_isbn_952-45
8-867-6.pdf) (PDF). p. 260. Archived (https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/htt
p://epublications.uef.fi/pub/urn_isbn_952-458-867-6/urn_isbn_952-458-867-6.pdf)
(PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved December 12, 2014.

41. Peter Naur (1966). "The science of datalogy" (https://doi.org/10.1145%2F365719.36651

0) . Communications of the ACM. 9 (7): 485. doi:10.1145/365719.366510 (https://doi.org/
10.1145%2F365719.366510) . S2CID 47558402 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusI
D:47558402) .

42. Weiss, E.A.; Corley, Henry P.T. "Letters to the editor" (https://doi.org/10.1145%2F368796.
1
368802) . Communications of the ACM. (4): 6. doi:10.1145/368796.368802 (https://doi.
org/10.1145%2F368796.368802) . S2CID 5379449 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/Cor
pusID:5379449) .

43. Communications of the ACM 2(1):p.4

44. IEEE Computer 28(12): p.136

45. P. Mounier-Kuhn, L'Informatique en France, de la seconde guerre mondiale au Plan

Calcul. L'émergence d'une science, Paris, PUPS, 2010, ch. 3 & 4.

46. Groth, Dennis P. (February 2010). "Why an Informatics Degree?" (http://cacm.acm.org/m

agazines/2010/2/69363-why-an-informatics-degree) . Communications of the ACM.
Cacm.acm.org. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230111224014/https://cacm.ac
m.org/magazines/2010/2/69363-why-an-informatics-degree/abstract) from the
original on January 11, 2023. Retrieved June 14, 2016.
47. Tedre, M. (2011). "Computing as a Science: A Survey of Competing Viewpoints". Minds
and Machines. 21 (3): 361–387. doi:10.1007/s11023-011-9240-4 (https://doi.org/10.100
7%2Fs11023-011-9240-4) . S2CID 14263916 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:
14263916) .

48. Parnas, D.L. (1998). "Software engineering programmes are not computer science
6
programmes". Annals of Software Engineering. : 19–37. doi:10.1023/A:1018949113292
(https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1018949113292) . S2CID 35786237 (https://api.semant
icscholar.org/CorpusID:35786237) ., p. 19: "Rather than treat software engineering as a
subfield of computer science, I treat it as an element of the set, Civil Engineering,
Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Electrical Engineering, [...]"

49. Luk, R.W.P. (2020). "Insight in how computer science can be a science". Science &
Philosophy. 8 (2): 17–47. doi:10.23756/sp.v8i2.531 (https://doi.org/10.23756%2Fsp.v8i2.
531) .

50. Knuth, D.E. (1974). "Computer science and its relation to mathematics". The American
Mathematical Monthly. 81 (4): 323–343. doi:10.2307/2318994 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2
F2318994) . JSTOR 2318994 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2318994) .

51. "The Philosophy of Computer Science" (https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/computer-scie

nce/#EpisStatCompScie) . The Philosophy of Computer Science (Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2021.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210916211931/https://plato.stanford.edu/entrie
s/computer-science/#EpisStatCompScie) from the original on September 16, 2021.
Retrieved September 16, 2021.

52. Wegner, P. (October 13–15, 1976). Research paradigms in computer science—

Proceedings of the 2nd international Conference on Software Engineering. San
Francisco, California, United States: IEEE Computer Society Press, Los Alamitos, CA.

53. Denning, Peter J. (2007). "Computing is a natural science". Communications of the ACM.
50 (7): 13–18. doi:10.1145/1272516.1272529 (https://doi.org/10.1145%2F1272516.127252
9) . S2CID 20045303 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:20045303) .
54. Eden, A.H. (2007). "Three Paradigms of Computer Science" (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20160215100211/http://www.eden-study.org/articles/2007/three_paradigms_of_comp
uter_science.pdf) (PDF). Minds and Machines. 17 (2): 135–167.
CiteSeerX 10.1.1.304.7763 (https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.30
4.7763) . doi:10.1007/s11023-007-9060-8 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11023-007-9060
-8) . S2CID 3023076 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3023076) . Archived
from the original (http://www.eden-study.org/articles/2007/three_paradigms_of_compu
ter_science.pdf) (PDF) on February 15, 2016.

55. Turner, Raymond; Angius, Nicola (2019). "The Philosophy of Computer Science" (https://
plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2019/entries/computer-science/) . In Zalta, Edward N.
(ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2
0191014101624/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2019/entries/computer-scienc
e/) from the original on October 14, 2019. Retrieved October 14, 2019.

56. "Computer Science as a Profession" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080617030847/htt

p://www.csab.org/comp_sci_profession.html) . Computing Sciences Accreditation
Board. May 28, 1997. Archived from the original (http://www.csab.org/comp_sci_profess
ion.html) on June 17, 2008. Retrieved May 23, 2010.

57. Committee on the Fundamentals of Computer Science: Challenges and Opportunities,

National Research Council (2004). Computer Science: Reflections on the Field,
Reflections from the Field (http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=11106#toc) .
National Academies Press. ISBN 978-0-309-09301-9. Archived (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20110218122042/http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=11106#toc) from
the original on February 18, 2011. Retrieved August 31, 2008.

58. "CSAB Leading Computer Education" (http://www.csab.org/) . CSAB. August 3, 2011.

Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190120190336/http://www.csab.org/) from
the original on January 20, 2019. Retrieved November 19, 2011.

59. Clay Mathematics Institute (http://www.claymath.org/millennium/P_vs_NP/) P = NP

Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20131014194456/http://www.claymath.org/millen
nium/P_vs_NP/) October 14, 2013, at the Wayback Machine

60. P. Collins, Graham (October 14, 2002). "Claude E. Shannon: Founder of Information
Theory" (http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=claude-e-shannon-founde
r) . Scientific American. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20140116183558/http://
www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=claude-e-shannon-founder) from the
original on January 16, 2014. Retrieved December 12, 2014.
61. Van-Nam Huynh; Vladik Kreinovich; Songsak Sriboonchitta; 2012. Uncertainty Analysis in
Econometrics with Applications. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 63. ISBN 978-3-
642-35443-4.

62. Phillip A. Laplante, (2010). Encyclopedia of Software Engineering Three-Volume Set

(Print). CRC Press. p. 309. ISBN 978-1-351-24926-3.

63. Muhammad H. Rashid, (2016). SPICE for Power Electronics and Electric Power. CRC
Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-1-4398-6047-2.

64. "What is an integrated circuit (IC)? A vital component of modern electronics" (https://wha
tis.techtarget.com/definition/integrated-circuit-IC) . WhatIs.com. Archived (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20211115153823/https://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/integrated-c
ircuit-IC) from the original on November 15, 2021. Retrieved November 15, 2021.

65. A. Thisted, Ronald (April 7, 1997). "Computer Architecture" (http://galton.uchicago.edu/~t

histed/Distribute/comparch.pdf) (PDF). The University of Chicago. Archived (https://gh
ostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://galton.uchicago.edu/~thisted/Distribute/compar
ch.pdf) (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022.

66. Jiacun Wang, (2017). Real-Time Embedded Systems. Wiley. p. 12. ISBN 978-1-119-
42070-5.

67. Gordana Dodig-Crnkovic; Raffaela Giovagnoli, (2013). Computing Nature: Turing

Centenary Perspective. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 247. ISBN 978-3-642-
37225-4.

68. Simon Elias Bibri (2018). Smart Sustainable Cities of the Future: The Untapped Potential
of Big Data Analytics and Context-Aware Computing for Advancing Sustainability.
Springer. p. 74. ISBN 978-3-319-73981-6.

69. Katz, Jonathan (2008). Introduction to modern cryptography (https://www.worldcat.org/

oclc/137325053) . Yehuda Lindell. Boca Raton: Chapman & Hall/CRC. ISBN 978-1-
58488-551-1. OCLC 137325053 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/137325053) .
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20220506003141/http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1
37325053) from the original on May 6, 2022. Retrieved November 17, 2021.

70. Rapaport, William J. (September 20, 2013). "What Is Computation?" (http://www.cse.buff

alo.edu/~rapaport/computation.html) . State University of New York at Buffalo.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20010214002845/http://www.cse.buffalo.edu/~r
apaport/computation.html) from the original on February 14, 2001. Retrieved August 31,
2013.
71. B. Jack Copeland, (2012). Alan Turing's Electronic Brain: The Struggle to Build the ACE,
the World's Fastest Computer. OUP Oxford. p. 107. ISBN 978-0-19-960915-4.

72. Charles W. Herbert, (2010). An Introduction to Programming Using Alice 2.2. Cengage
Learning. p. 122. ISBN 0-538-47866-7.

73. Md. Rezaul Karim; Sridhar Alla, (2017). Scala and Spark for Big Data Analytics: Explore
the concepts of functional programming, data streaming, and machine learning. Packt
Publishing Ltd. p. 87. ISBN 978-1-78355-050-0.

74. Lex Sheehan, (2017). Learning Functional Programming in Go: Change the way you
approach your applications using functional programming in Go. Packt Publishing Ltd. p.
16. ISBN 978-1-78728-604-7.

75. Evelio Padilla, (2015). Substation Automation Systems: Design and Implementation.
Wiley. p. 245. ISBN 978-1-118-98730-8.

76. "Multi-Paradigm Programming Language" (https://web.archive.org/web/2013082105240

7/https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/multiparadigmlanguage.html) . MDN Web
Docs. Mozilla Foundation. Archived from the original (https://developer.mozilla.org/en-U
S/docs/multiparadigmlanguage.html) on August 21, 2013.

77. Meyer, Bertrand (April 2009). "Viewpoint: Research evaluation for computer science" (htt
ps://pure.itu.dk/portal/da/publications/b474cea0-8288-11dd-b116-000ea68e967b) .
Communications of the ACM. 25 (4): 31–34. doi:10.1145/1498765.1498780 (https://doi.or
g/10.1145%2F1498765.1498780) . S2CID 8625066 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/Corp
usID:8625066) .

78. Patterson, David (August 1999). "Evaluating Computer Scientists and Engineers For
Promotion and Tenure" (http://cra.org/resources/bp-view/evaluating_computer_scientis
ts_and_engineers_for_promotion_and_tenure/) . Computing Research Association.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150722020941/http://cra.org/resources/bp-vie
w/evaluating_computer_scientists_and_engineers_for_promotion_and_tenure/) from
the original on July 22, 2015. Retrieved July 19, 2015.

79. Fortnow, Lance (August 2009). "Viewpoint: Time for Computer Science to Grow Up" (http
s://doi.org/10.1145%2F1536616.1536631) . Communications of the ACM. 52 (8): 33–35.
doi:10.1145/1536616.1536631 (https://doi.org/10.1145%2F1536616.1536631) .
Further reading

Tucker, Allen B. (2004). Computer Science Handbook (2nd ed.). Chapman and Hall/CRC.
ISBN 978-1-58488-360-9.

Ralston, Anthony; Reilly, Edwin D.; Hemmendinger, David (2000). Encyclopedia of

Computer Science (http://portal.acm.org/ralston.cfm) (4th ed.). Grove's Dictionaries.
ISBN 978-1-56159-248-7. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20200608005417/http
s://dl.acm.org/doi/book/10.5555/1074100) from the original on June 8, 2020. Retrieved
February 6, 2011.

Edwin D. Reilly (2003). Milestones in Computer Science and Information Technology (http
s://archive.org/details/milestonesincomp0000reil) . Greenwood Publishing Group.
ISBN 978-1-57356-521-9.

Knuth, Donald E. (1996). Selected Papers on Computer Science. CSLI Publications,

Cambridge University Press.

Collier, Bruce (1990). The little engine that could've: The calculating machines of Charles
Babbage (http://robroy.dyndns.info/collier/index.html) . Garland Publishing Inc. ISBN 978-
0-8240-0043-1. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20070120190231/http://robroy.dyn
dns.info/collier/index.html) from the original on January 20, 2007. Retrieved May 4, 2013.

Cohen, Bernard (2000). Howard Aiken, Portrait of a computer pioneer. The MIT press.
ISBN 978-0-262-53179-5.

Tedre, Matti (2014). The Science of Computing: Shaping a Discipline. CRC Press, Taylor &
Francis.

Randell, Brian (1973). The origins of Digital computers, Selected Papers. Springer-Verlag.
ISBN 978-3-540-06169-4.

Randell, Brian (October–December 1982). "From Analytical Engine to Electronic Digital

Computer: The Contributions of Ludgate, Torres, and Bush" (https://web.archive.org/web/2
0130921055055/http://www.cs.ncl.ac.uk/publications/articles/papers/398.pdf) (PDF).
IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 4 (4): 327–341. doi:10.1109/mahc.1982.10042 (htt
ps://doi.org/10.1109%2Fmahc.1982.10042) . S2CID 1737953 (https://api.semanticscholar.o
rg/CorpusID:1737953) . Archived from the original (http://www.cs.ncl.ac.uk/research/pub
s/articles/papers/398.pdf) (PDF) on September 21, 2013.

Peter J. Denning. Is computer science science? (http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1053

309&coll=&dl=ACM&CFID=15151515&CFTOKEN=6184618) , Communications of the ACM,
 April 2005.

Peter J. Denning, Great principles in computing curricula (http://portal.acm.org/citation.cf

m?id=971303&dl=ACM&coll=&CFID=15151515&CFTOKEN=6184618) , Technical
Symposium on Computer Science Education, 2004.

External links

DBLP Computer Science Bibliography (http://dblp.uni-trie Library resources about

r.de/) Computer science
Association for Computing Machinery (http://www.acm.or Resources in your library (http
s://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?
g/) st=wp&su=Computer+scienc
e)
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (https://w Resources in other libraries (htt
ww.ieee.org/) ps://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ft
l?st=wp&su=Computer+scienc
e&library=0CHOOSE0)