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 Machine Learning with
Python Cookbook
SECOND EDITION
Practical Solutions from Preprocessing to Deep Learning

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Kyle Gallatin and Chris Albon

Machine Learning with Python Cookbook
by Kyle Gallatin and Chris Albon
Copyright © 2023 Kyle Gallatin. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America.
Published by O’Reilly Media, Inc., 1005 Gravenstein Highway North,
Sebastopol, CA 95472.
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978-1-098-13566-9
Chapter 1. Working with
Vectors, Matrices and Arrays
in NumPy

A NOTE FOR EARLY RELEASE READERS

With Early Release ebooks, you get books in their earliest form—the authors’
raw and unedited content as they write—so you can take advantage of these
technologies long before the official release of these titles.
This will be the 1st chapter of the final book.
If you have comments about how we might improve the content and/or
examples in this book, or if you notice missing material within this chapter,
please reach out to the authors at [email protected].

1.0 Introduction
NumPy is a foundational tool of the Python machine learning stack.
NumPy allows for efficient operations on the data structures often
used in machine learning: vectors, matrices, and tensors. While
NumPy is not the focus of this book, it will show up frequently
throughout the following chapters. This chapter covers the most
common NumPy operations we are likely to run into while working
on machine learning workflows.

1.1 Creating a Vector

Problem
You need to create a vector.
Solution
Use NumPy to create a one-dimensional array:

# Load library
import numpy as np

# Create a vector as a row

vector_row = np.array([1, 2, 3])

# Create a vector as a column

vector_column = np.array([[1],
[2],
[3]])

Discussion
NumPy’s main data structure is the multidimensional array. A vector
is just an array with a single dimension. In order to create a vector,
we simply create a one-dimensional array. Just like vectors, these
arrays can be represented horizontally (i.e., rows) or vertically (i.e.,
columns).

See Also
Vectors, Math Is Fun
Euclidean vector, Wikipedia

1.2 Creating a Matrix

Problem
You need to create a matrix.

Solution
Use NumPy to create a two-dimensional array:
 # Load library
import numpy as np

# Create a matrix
matrix = np.array([[1, 2],
[1, 2],
[1, 2]])

Discussion
To create a matrix we can use a NumPy two-dimensional array. In
our solution, the matrix contains three rows and two columns (a
column of 1s and a column of 2s).
NumPy actually has a dedicated matrix data structure:

matrix_object = np.mat([[1, 2],

[1, 2],
[1, 2]])

matrix([[1, 2],
[1, 2],
[1, 2]])

However, the matrix data structure is not recommended for two

reasons. First, arrays are the de facto standard data structure of
NumPy. Second, the vast majority of NumPy operations return
arrays, not matrix objects.

See Also
Matrix, Wikipedia
Matrix, Wolfram MathWorld
1.3 Creating a Sparse Matrix

Problem
Given data with very few nonzero values, you want to efficiently
represent it.

Solution
Create a sparse matrix:

# Load libraries
import numpy as np
from scipy import sparse

# Create a matrix
matrix = np.array([[0, 0],
[0, 1],
[3, 0]])

# Create compressed sparse row (CSR) matrix

matrix_sparse = sparse.csr_matrix(matrix)

Discussion
A frequent situation in machine learning is having a huge amount of
data; however, most of the elements in the data are zeros. For
example, imagine a matrix where the columns are every movie on
Netflix, the rows are every Netflix user, and the values are how many
times a user has watched that particular movie. This matrix would
have tens of thousands of columns and millions of rows! However,
since most users do not watch most movies, the vast majority of
elements would be zero.
A sparse matrix is a matrix in which most elements are 0. Sparse
matrices only store nonzero elements and assume all other values
will be zero, leading to significant computational savings. In our
solution, we created a NumPy array with two nonzero values, then
converted it into a sparse matrix. If we view the sparse matrix we
can see that only the nonzero values are stored:

# View sparse matrix

print(matrix_sparse)

(1, 1) 1
(2, 0) 3

There are a number of types of sparse matrices. However, in

compressed sparse row (CSR) matrices, (1, 1) and (2, 0)
represent the (zero-indexed) indices of the non-zero values 1 and 3,
respectively. For example, the element 1 is in the second row and
second column. We can see the advantage of sparse matrices if we
create a much larger matrix with many more zero elements and then
compare this larger matrix with our original sparse matrix:

# Create larger matrix

matrix_large = np.array([[0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0],
[0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0],
[3, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0]])

# Create compressed sparse row (CSR) matrix

matrix_large_sparse = sparse.csr_matrix(matrix_large)

# View original sparse matrix

print(matrix_sparse)

(1, 1) 1
(2, 0) 3

# View larger sparse matrix

print(matrix_large_sparse)

(1, 1) 1
(2, 0) 3
As we can see, despite the fact that we added many more zero
elements in the larger matrix, its sparse representation is exactly the
same as our original sparse matrix. That is, the addition of zero
elements did not change the size of the sparse matrix.
As mentioned, there are many different types of sparse matrices,
such as compressed sparse column, list of lists, and dictionary of
keys. While an explanation of the different types and their
implications is outside the scope of this book, it is worth noting that
while there is no “best” sparse matrix type, there are meaningful
differences between them and we should be conscious about why
we are choosing one type over another.

See Also
Sparse matrices, SciPy documentation
101 Ways to Store a Sparse Matrix

1.4 Pre-allocating Numpy Arrays

Problem
You need to pre-allocate arrays of a given size with some value.

Solution
NumPy has functions for generating vectors and matrices of any size
using 0s, 1s, or values of your choice.

# Load library
import numpy as np

# Generate a vector of shape (1,5) containing all zeros

vector = np.zeros(shape=5)
 # View the vector
print(vector)

array([0., 0., 0., 0., 0.])

# Generate a matrix of shape (3,3) containing all ones

matrix = np.full(shape=(3,3), 1)

# View the vector

print(matrix)

array([[1., 1., 1.],

[1., 1., 1.],
[1., 1., 1.]])

Discussion
Generating arrays prefilled with data is useful for a number of
purposes, such as making code more performant or having synthetic
data to test algorithms with. In many programming languages, pre-
allocating an array of default values (such as 0s) is considered
common practice.

1.5 Selecting Elements

Problem
You need to select one or more elements in a vector or matrix.

Solution
NumPy’s arrays make it easy to select elements in vectors or
matrices:

# Load library
import numpy as np

# Create row vector

 vector = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6])

# Create matrix
matrix = np.array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6],
[7, 8, 9]])

# Select third element of vector

vector[2]

# Select second row, second column

matrix[1,1]

Discussion
Like most things in Python, NumPy arrays are zero-indexed, meaning
that the index of the first element is 0, not 1. With that caveat,
NumPy offers a wide variety of methods for selecting (i.e., indexing
and slicing) elements or groups of elements in arrays:

# Select all elements of a vector

vector[:]

array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6])

# Select everything up to and including the third element

vector[:3]

array([1, 2, 3])

# Select everything after the third element

vector[3:]

array([4, 5, 6])
 # Select the last element
vector[-1]

# Reverse the vector

vector[::-1]

array([6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1])

# Select the first two rows and all columns of a matrix

matrix[:2,:]

array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6]])

# Select all rows and the second column

matrix[:,1:2]

array([[2],
[5],
[8]])

1.6 Describing a Matrix

Problem
You want to describe the shape, size, and dimensions of the matrix.

Solution
Use the shape, size, and ndim attributes of a NumPy object:

# Load library
import numpy as np

# Create matrix
matrix = np.array([[1, 2, 3, 4],
[5, 6, 7, 8],
 [9, 10, 11, 12]])

# View number of rows and columns

matrix.shape

(3, 4)

# View number of elements (rows * columns)

matrix.size

12

# View number of dimensions

matrix.ndim

Discussion
This might seem basic (and it is); however, time and again it will be
valuable to check the shape and size of an array both for further
calculations and simply as a gut check after some operation.

1.7 Applying Functions Over Each Element

Problem
You want to apply some function to all elements in an array.

Solution
Use NumPy’s vectorize method:

# Load library
import numpy as np

# Create matrix
matrix = np.array([[1, 2, 3],
 [4, 5, 6],
[7, 8, 9]])

# Create function that adds 100 to something

add_100 = lambda i: i + 100

# Create vectorized function

vectorized_add_100 = np.vectorize(add_100)

# Apply function to all elements in matrix

vectorized_add_100(matrix)

array([[101, 102, 103],

[104, 105, 106],
[107, 108, 109]])

Discussion
NumPy’s vectorize class converts a function into a function that
can apply to all elements in an array or slice of an array. It’s worth
noting that vectorize is essentially a for loop over the elements
and does not increase performance. Furthermore, NumPy arrays
allow us to perform operations between arrays even if their
dimensions are not the same (a process called broadcasting). For
example, we can create a much simpler version of our solution using
broadcasting:

# Add 100 to all elements

matrix + 100

array([[101, 102, 103],

[104, 105, 106],
[107, 108, 109]])
1.8 Finding the Maximum and Minimum Values

Problem
You need to find the maximum or minimum value in an array.

Solution
Use NumPy’s max and min methods:

# Load library
import numpy as np

# Create matrix
matrix = np.array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6],
[7, 8, 9]])

# Return maximum element

np.max(matrix)

# Return minimum element

np.min(matrix)

Discussion
Often we want to know the maximum and minimum value in an
array or subset of an array. This can be accomplished with the max
and min methods. Using the axis parameter we can also apply the
operation along a certain axis:

# Find maximum element in each column

np.max(matrix, axis=0)
 array([7, 8, 9])

# Find maximum element in each row

np.max(matrix, axis=1)

array([3, 6, 9])

1.9 Calculating the Average, Variance, and

Standard Deviation

Problem
You want to calculate some descriptive statistics about an array.

Solution
Use NumPy’s mean, var, and std:

# Load library
import numpy as np

# Create matrix
matrix = np.array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6],
[7, 8, 9]])

# Return mean
np.mean(matrix)

5.0

# Return variance
np.var(matrix)

6.666666666666667

# Return standard deviation

np.std(matrix)
 2.5819888974716112

Discussion
Just like with max and min, we can easily get descriptive statistics
about the whole matrix or do calculations along a single axis:

# Find the mean value in each column

np.mean(matrix, axis=0)

array([ 4., 5., 6.])

1.10 Reshaping Arrays

Problem
You want to change the shape (number of rows and columns) of an
array without changing the element values.

Solution
Use NumPy’s reshape:

# Load library
import numpy as np

# Create 4x3 matrix

matrix = np.array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6],
[7, 8, 9],
[10, 11, 12]])

# Reshape matrix into 2x6 matrix

matrix.reshape(2, 6)

array([[ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6],
[ 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12]])
Discussion
reshape allows us to restructure an array so that we maintain the
same data but it is organized as a different number of rows and
columns. The only requirement is that the shape of the original and
new matrix contain the same number of elements (i.e., the same
size). We can see the size of a matrix using size:

matrix.size

12

One useful argument in reshape is -1, which effectively means “as

many as needed,” so reshape(1, -1) means one row and as
many columns as needed:

matrix.reshape(1, -1)

array([[ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12]])

Finally, if we provide one integer, reshape will return a 1D array of

that length:

matrix.reshape(12)

array([ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12])

1.11 Transposing a Vector or Matrix

Problem
You need to transpose a vector or matrix.
Solution
Use the T method:

# Load library
import numpy as np

# Create matrix
matrix = np.array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6],
[7, 8, 9]])

# Transpose matrix
matrix.T

array([[1, 4, 7],
[2, 5, 8],
[3, 6, 9]])

Discussion
Transposing is a common operation in linear algebra where the
column and row indices of each element are swapped. One nuanced
point that is typically overlooked outside of a linear algebra class is
that, technically, a vector cannot be transposed because it is just a
collection of values:

# Transpose vector
np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]).T

array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6])

However, it is common to refer to transposing a vector as converting

a row vector to a column vector (notice the second pair of brackets)
or vice versa:

# Tranpose row vector

np.array([[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]]).T
 array([[1],
[2],
[3],
[4],
[5],
[6]])

1.12 Flattening a Matrix

Problem
You need to transform a matrix into a one-dimensional array.

Solution
Use flatten:

# Load library
import numpy as np

# Create matrix
matrix = np.array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6],
[7, 8, 9]])

# Flatten matrix
matrix.flatten()

array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9])

Discussion
flatten is a simple method to transform a matrix into a one-
dimensional array. Alternatively, we can use reshape to create a
row vector:

matrix.reshape(1, -1)
 array([[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]])

One more common method to flatten arrays is the ravel method.

Unlike flatten which returns a copy of the original array, ravel
operates on the original object itself and is therefore slightly faster.
It also lets us flatten lists of arrays, which we can’t do with the
flatten method. This operation is useful for flattening very large
arrays and speeding up code.

# Create one matrix

matrix_a = np.array([[1, 2],
[3, 4]])

# Create a second matrix

matrix_b = np.array([[5, 6],
[7, 8]])

# Create a list of matrices

matrix_list = [matrix_a, matrix_b]

# Flatten the entire list of matrices

np.ravel(matrix_list)

array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8])

1.13 Finding the Rank of a Matrix

Problem
You need to know the rank of a matrix.

Solution
Use NumPy’s linear algebra method matrix_rank:

# Load library
import numpy as np
 # Create matrix
matrix = np.array([[1, 1, 1],
[1, 1, 10],
[1, 1, 15]])

# Return matrix rank

np.linalg.matrix_rank(matrix)

Discussion
The rank of a matrix is the dimensions of the vector space spanned
by its columns or rows. Finding the rank of a matrix is easy in
NumPy thanks to matrix_rank.

See Also
The Rank of a Matrix, CliffsNotes

1.14 Getting the Diagonal of a Matrix

Problem
You need to get the diagonal elements of a matrix.

Solution
Use diagonal:

# Load library
import numpy as np

# Create matrix
matrix = np.array([[1, 2, 3],
[2, 4, 6],
[3, 8, 9]])
 # Return diagonal elements
matrix.diagonal()

array([1, 4, 9])

Discussion
NumPy makes getting the diagonal elements of a matrix easy with
diagonal. It is also possible to get a diagonal off from the main
diagonal by using the offset parameter:

# Return diagonal one above the main diagonal

matrix.diagonal(offset=1)

array([2, 6])

# Return diagonal one below the main diagonal

matrix.diagonal(offset=-1)

array([2, 8])

1.15 Calculating the Trace of a Matrix

Problem
You need to calculate the trace of a matrix.

Solution
Use trace:

# Load library
import numpy as np

# Create matrix
matrix = np.array([[1, 2, 3],
[2, 4, 6],
[3, 8, 9]])
 # Return trace
matrix.trace()

14

Discussion
The trace of a matrix is the sum of the diagonal elements and is
often used under the hood in machine learning methods. Given a
NumPy multidimensional array, we can calculate the trace using
trace. We can also return the diagonal of a matrix and calculate its
sum:

# Return diagonal and sum elements

sum(matrix.diagonal())

14

See Also
The Trace of a Square Matrix

1.16 Calculating Dot Products

Problem
You need to calculate the dot product of two vectors.

Solution
Use NumPy’s dot:

# Load library
import numpy as np

# Create two vectors

 vector_a = np.array([1,2,3])
vector_b = np.array([4,5,6])

# Calculate dot product

np.dot(vector_a, vector_b)

32

Discussion
The dot product of two vectors, a and b, is defined as:

where ai is the ith element of vector a. We can use NumPy’s dot

function to calculate the dot product. Alternatively, in Python 3.5+
we can use the new @ operator:

# Calculate dot product

vector_a @ vector_b

32

See Also
Vector dot product and vector length, Khan Academy
Dot Product, Paul’s Online Math Notes

1.17 Adding and Subtracting Matrices

Problem
You want to add or subtract two matrices.
Solution
Use NumPy’s add and subtract:

# Load library
import numpy as np

# Create matrix
matrix_a = np.array([[1, 1, 1],
[1, 1, 1],
[1, 1, 2]])

# Create matrix
matrix_b = np.array([[1, 3, 1],
[1, 3, 1],
[1, 3, 8]])

# Add two matrices

np.add(matrix_a, matrix_b)

array([[ 2, 4, 2],
[ 2, 4, 2],
[ 2, 4, 10]])

# Subtract two matrices

np.subtract(matrix_a, matrix_b)

array([[ 0, -2, 0],

[ 0, -2, 0],
[ 0, -2, -6]])

Discussion
Alternatively, we can simply use the + and - operators:

# Add two matrices

matrix_a + matrix_b

array([[ 2, 4, 2],
[ 2, 4, 2],
[ 2, 4, 10]])
1.18 Multiplying Matrices

Problem
You want to multiply two matrices.

Solution
Use NumPy’s dot:

# Load library
import numpy as np

# Create matrix
matrix_a = np.array([[1, 1],
[1, 2]])

# Create matrix
matrix_b = np.array([[1, 3],
[1, 2]])

# Multiply two matrices

np.dot(matrix_a, matrix_b)

array([[2, 5],
[3, 7]])

Discussion
Alternatively, in Python 3.5+ we can use the @ operator:

# Multiply two matrices

matrix_a @ matrix_b

array([[2, 5],
[3, 7]])

If we want to do element-wise multiplication, we can use the *

operator:
 # Multiply two matrices element-wise
matrix_a * matrix_b

array([[1, 3],
[1, 4]])

See Also
Array vs. Matrix Operations, MathWorks

1.19 Inverting a Matrix

Problem
You want to calculate the inverse of a square matrix.

Solution
Use NumPy’s linear algebra inv method:

# Load library
import numpy as np

# Create matrix
matrix = np.array([[1, 4],
[2, 5]])

# Calculate inverse of matrix

np.linalg.inv(matrix)

array([[-1.66666667, 1.33333333],
[ 0.66666667, -0.33333333]])

Discussion
The inverse of a square matrix, A, is a second matrix A–1, such that:
where I is the identity matrix. In NumPy we can use linalg.inv
to calculate A–1 if it exists. To see this in action, we can multiply a
matrix by its inverse and the result is the identity matrix:

# Multiply matrix and its inverse

matrix @ np.linalg.inv(matrix)

array([[ 1., 0.],

[ 0., 1.]])

See Also
Inverse of a Matrix

1.20 Generating Random Values

Problem
You want to generate pseudorandom values.

Solution
Use NumPy’s random:

# Load library
import numpy as np

# Set seed
np.random.seed(0)

# Generate three random floats between 0.0 and 1.0

np.random.random(3)

array([ 0.5488135 , 0.71518937, 0.60276338])

Discussion
NumPy offers a wide variety of means to generate random numbers,
many more than can be covered here. In our solution we generated
floats; however, it is also common to generate integers:

# Generate three random integers between 0 and 10

np.random.randint(0, 11, 3)

array([3, 7, 9])

Alternatively, we can generate numbers by drawing them from a

distribution:

# Draw three numbers from a normal distribution with mean

0.0
# and standard deviation of 1.0
np.random.normal(0.0, 1.0, 3)

array([-1.42232584, 1.52006949, -0.29139398])

# Draw three numbers from a logistic distribution with mean

0.0 and scale of 1.0
np.random.logistic(0.0, 1.0, 3)

array([-0.98118713, -0.08939902, 1.46416405])

# Draw three numbers greater than or equal to 1.0 and less

than 2.0
np.random.uniform(1.0, 2.0, 3)

array([ 1.47997717, 1.3927848 , 1.83607876])

Finally, it can sometimes be useful to return the same random

numbers multiple times to get predictable, repeatable results. We
can do this by setting the “seed” (an integer) of the pseudorandom
generator. Random processes with the same seed will always
produce the same output. We will use seeds throughout this book so
that the code you see in the book and the code you run on your
computer produces the same results.
Chapter 2. Loading Data

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2.0 Introduction
The first step in any machine learning endeavor is to get the raw
data into our system. The raw data might be a logfile, dataset file,
database, or cloud blob store such as Amazon S3. Furthermore,
often we will want to retrieve data from multiple sources.
The recipes in this chapter look at methods of loading data from a
variety of sources, including CSV files and SQL databases. We also
cover methods of generating simulated data with desirable
properties for experimentation. Finally, while there are many ways to
load data in the Python ecosystem, we will focus on using the
pandas library’s extensive set of methods for loading external data,
and using scikit-learn—an open source machine learning library in
Python—for generating simulated data.
2.1 Loading a Sample Dataset

Problem
You want to load a preexisting sample dataset from the scikit-learn
library.

Solution
scikit-learn comes with a number of popular datasets for you to use:

# Load scikit-learn's datasets

from sklearn import datasets

# Load digits dataset

digits = datasets.load_digits()

# Create features matrix

features = digits.data

# Create target vector

target = digits.target

# View first observation

features[0]

array([ 0., 0., 5., 13., 9., 1., 0., 0.,

0., 0., 13.,
15., 10., 15., 5., 0., 0., 3., 15.,
2., 0., 11.,
8., 0., 0., 4., 12., 0., 0., 8.,
8., 0., 0.,
5., 8., 0., 0., 9., 8., 0., 0.,
4., 11., 0.,
1., 12., 7., 0., 0., 2., 14., 5.,
10., 12., 0.,
0., 0., 0., 6., 13., 10., 0., 0.,
0.])
Discussion
Often we do not want to go through the work of loading,
transforming, and cleaning a real-world dataset before we can
explore some machine learning algorithm or method. Luckily, scikit-
learn comes with some common datasets we can quickly load. These
datasets are often called “toy” datasets because they are far smaller
and cleaner than a dataset we would see in the real world. Some
popular sample datasets in scikit-learn are:
load_boston
Contains 503 observations on Boston housing prices. It is a good
dataset for exploring regression algorithms.

load_iris
Contains 150 observations on the measurements of Iris flowers.
It is a good dataset for exploring classification algorithms.

load_digits
Contains 1,797 observations from images of handwritten digits. It
is a good dataset for teaching image classification.
To see more details on any of the datasets above, you can print the
DESCR attribute:

# Load scikit-learn's datasets

from sklearn import datasets

# Load digits dataset

digits = datasets.load_digits()

# Print the attribute

print(digits.DESCR)

.. _digits_dataset:

Optical recognition of handwritten digits dataset

--------------------------------------------------
 **Data Set Characteristics:**

:Number of Instances: 1797

:Number of Attributes: 64
:Attribute Information: 8x8 image of integer pixels in
the range 0..16.
:Missing Attribute Values: None
:Creator: E. Alpaydin (alpaydin '@' boun.edu.tr)
:Date: July; 1998
...

See Also
scikit-learn toy datasets
The Digit Dataset

2.2 Creating a Simulated Dataset

Problem
You need to generate a dataset of simulated data.

Solution
scikit-learn offers many methods for creating simulated data. Of
those, three methods are particularly useful: make_regression,
make_classification, and make_blobs.
When we want a dataset designed to be used with linear regression,
make_regression is a good choice:

# Load library
from sklearn.datasets import make_regression

# Generate features matrix, target vector, and the true

coefficients
features, target, coefficients = make_regression(n_samples
= 100,
 n_features
= 3,

n_informative = 3,
n_targets
= 1,
noise =
0.0,
coef =
True,

random_state = 1)

# View feature matrix and target vector

print('Feature Matrix\n', features[:3])
print('Target Vector\n', target[:3])

Feature Matrix
[[ 1.29322588 -0.61736206 -0.11044703]
[-2.793085 0.36633201 1.93752881]
[ 0.80186103 -0.18656977 0.0465673 ]]
Target Vector
[-10.37865986 25.5124503 19.67705609]

If we are interested in creating a simulated dataset for classification,

we can use make_classification:

# Load library
from sklearn.datasets import make_classification

# Generate features matrix and target vector

features, target = make_classification(n_samples = 100,
n_features = 3,
n_informative = 3,
n_redundant = 0,
n_classes = 2,
weights = [.25,
.75],
random_state = 1)

# View feature matrix and target vector

print('Feature Matrix\n', features[:3])
print('Target Vector\n', target[:3])
 Feature Matrix
[[ 1.06354768 -1.42632219 1.02163151]
[ 0.23156977 1.49535261 0.33251578]
[ 0.15972951 0.83533515 -0.40869554]]
Target Vector
[1 0 0]

Finally, if we want a dataset designed to work well with clustering

techniques, scikit-learn offers make_blobs:

# Load library
from sklearn.datasets import make_blobs

# Generate feature matrix and target vector

features, target = make_blobs(n_samples = 100,
n_features = 2,
centers = 3,
cluster_std = 0.5,
shuffle = True,
random_state = 1)

# View feature matrix and target vector

print('Feature Matrix\n', features[:3])
print('Target Vector\n', target[:3])

Feature Matrix
[[ -1.22685609 3.25572052]
[ -9.57463218 -4.38310652]
[-10.71976941 -4.20558148]]
Target Vector
[0 1 1]

Discussion
As might be apparent from the solutions, make_regression
returns a feature matrix of float values and a target vector of float
values, while make_classification and make_blobs return a
feature matrix of float values and a target vector of integers
representing membership in a class.
scikit-learn’s simulated datasets offer extensive options to control the
type of data generated. scikit-learn’s documentation contains a full
description of all the parameters, but a few are worth noting.
In make_regression and make_classification,
n_informative determines the number of features that are used
to generate the target vector. If n_informative is less than the
total number of features (n_features), the resulting dataset will
have redundant features that can be identified through feature
selection techniques.
In addition, make_classification contains a weights
parameter that allows us to simulate datasets with imbalanced
classes. For example, weights = [.25, .75] would return a
dataset with 25% of observations belonging to one class and 75% of
observations belonging to a second class.
For make_blobs, the centers parameter determines the number
of clusters generated. Using the matplotlib visualization library,
we can visualize the clusters generated by make_blobs:

# Load library
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

# View scatterplot
plt.scatter(features[:,0], features[:,1], c=target)
plt.show()
See Also
make_regression documentation
make_classification documentation
make_blobs documentation

2.3 Loading a CSV File

Problem
You need to import a comma-separated values (CSV) file.

Solution
Use the pandas library’s read_csv to load a local or hosted CSV
file:

# Load library
import pandas as pd

# Create URL
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