Immunology

Introduction
By
Prof. Dr. Batool Hassan Al-Ghurabi
 Immunology
• Immunology is a branch of biomedical science that covers the
study of immune systems in all organisms. It deal with the
response of an organism to antigenic challenge.
• Immunity (resistance)
• The word immunity was derived from the Lain word “immunis”
meaning exempt.

• It is the sum of all naturally occurring defense mechanisms that

protect humans from infectious disease.
 Immune system
The immune system refers to a collection of organs,
cells and proteins that function to protect all the body
(skin, respiratory and intestinal tract and other areas)
from foreign antigens, such as microbes ( bacteria,
fungi, viruses and parasites).
Two important types
I. Innate (natural) or non-specific immunity
II. Adaptive (acquired) or specific immunity
• Protection Against Invading Pathogens
1. First Line of Defense: Non-specific natural barriers which
restrict entry of pathogen.
Examples: Skin and mucous membranes.
2. Second Line of Defense: Innate non-specific immune defenses
provide rapid local response to pathogen after it has entered
host.
Examples: Fever, phagocytes (macrophages and neutrophils),
inflammation, and interferon.
3. Third line of defense: Antigen-specific immune responses,
specifically target and attack invaders that get past first two
lines of defense.
Examples: Antibodies and lymphocytes.
Natural or innate or non-specific immunity
-It is present at birth.

- Has the ability to resist infection by means of

normally present body functions.

- Many of these mechanisms are subject to influence by

factors as nutrition, age, fatigue, stress, and genetic
determinants.
Innate defenses can be classified into three
main groups:
1. Barriers to infection
2. Humoral factor (Soluble proteins).
3. Cells
1. Barriers to infection
- Physical and mechanical barriers
Skin and mucosal membranes act as physical
barriers to the entry of pathogens. Tight junctions
between cells prevent the majority of pathogens
from entering the body.
• The flushing actions of tears, saliva and urine protect
epithelial surfaces from colonization.
• High oxygen tension in the lungs, and body
temperature, can also inhibit microbial
growth.
• In the respiratory tract, mucus is secreted to
trap microorganisms. They are then
mechanically expelled by:
• Beating cilia
• Coughing
• Sneezing.
Chemical barriers
-The growth of microorganisms is inhibited at
acidic pH (e.g. in the stomach and vagina).
-Lactic acid and fatty acids in sebum (produced
by sebaceous glands) maintain the skin pH
between 3 and 5.
-Enzymes such as lysozyme (found in saliva,
sweat and tears) and pepsin (present in the
gut) destroy microorganisms.
- Biological barriers (normal flora)
Normal flora is formed when non-
pathogenic bacteria colonize epithelial
surfaces. Normal flora protects the host by:
• Competing with pathogenic bacteria for
nutrients and attachment sites
• Production of antibacterial substances.
2. Humoral factor (Soluble proteins).
When infectious agents have penetrated
tissues another innate defense mechanism play
role in protection. Humoral factors play an
important role in inflammations, and these
factors found in serum or they are formed at
the site of infection.
1. Complement system: is a group of serum proteins •
which inactive functionally, but when activated they
damage the membranes of the pathogenic organisms,
either destroying the pathogens or facilitating their
clearance.
2. Beta-lysin: is a protein produce by platelets during •
coagulation can lyses many bacteria by chemotactic
agents for phagocytic cells.
3. Interferons (INF): which are group of proteins •
produced by virus infected cells. Among the many
functions of INF is the ability to bind to nearby cells
and induce a generalized antiviral state. There are
three types of them (IFN α, γ, β).
4. Lactoferrin and transferrin: are iron-binding •
proteins that compete with microorganisms
for iron, an essential metabolite.

5. Lysozyme: bactericidal enzyme in mucus,

saliva, tears, sweat and breast milk, it cleaves
peptidoglycan in the cell wall of
microorganisms.
6. Cytokines: Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-
), interleukin-1 (IL-1) and IL-12.
3. Cells of innate immunity •
The cells of the innate immune system consist of:
1. Phagocytes (Macrophage and Neutrophils )
2. Natural killer cells. •
• Phagocytes
Phagocytes (macrophages and neutrophils) engulf and then
destroy pathogens by process of phagocytosis.
Macrophages are long lived cells at sites of infection; they
release cytokines that recruit the shorter-lived but more
actively phagocytic neutrophils.
• Neutrophils comprise 50–70% of circulating white cells.
Neutrophils arrive quickly at the site of inflammation and in
the act of killing pathogens they die.
 Phagocytic cells

monocyte
neutrophil
 Stages of Phagocytosis
1.Chemotaxis: Phagocytes are chemically attracted to site
of infection.
2.Adherence: Phagocyte plasma membrane attaches to
surface of pathogen or foreign material.
3. Ingestion: Plasma membrane of phagocytes extends
projections (pseudopods) which engulf the microbe.
Microbe is enclosed in a sac called phagosome.
4. Digestion: Inside the cell, phagosome fuses with
lysosome to form a phagolysosome. Lysosomal enzymes
kill most bacteria within 30 minutes.
 Antigen presenting cells (APC)
• Antigen presenting cells- are cells that mediate cellular immune
response by engulfment, processing and presenting antigens to
the T-cell receptor.

• Traditional APC include: macrophages, dendritic

cells, langerhans cells, and B- lymphocytes.
 Natural killer (NK) cells
Large granular lymphocytes (not B-cell or T-cell)
Kills tumor cells & viral inf. cells (intracellular pathogens) NK cells
do not require prior immunization or activation
They attach to ‘target’ cells, then cytotoxic granules are released onto
surface of cell and effectors proteins penetrate
cell membrane and induce death.
• Inflammation: Triggered by tissue damage due to
infection, heat, wound, etc.
• Major Symptoms of Inflammation
1. Redness 2. Pain
3. Heat 4. Swelling
May also observe: 5. Loss of function
• Functions of Inflammation
1. Destroy and remove pathogens
2. If destruction is not possible, to limit effects by
confining the pathogen and its products.
3. Repair and replace tissue damaged by pathogen and
its products.
Adaptive or acquired or specific immunity

is a type of resistance that is characterized by

specificity for each individual pathogen, or

microbial agent, and the ability to remember a

prior exposure, which results in an increased

response upon repeated exposure.

Adaptive immunity is often sub-divided into two major types •
depending on how the immunity was introduced:

a. Naturally acquired immunity: is occurs through contact •

with a disease.

b. Artificially acquired immunity: is develops only through •

deliberate actions such as vaccination.

**Both naturally and artificially acquired immunity can be •

further subdivided depending on whether immunity is induced in
the host or passively transferred from an immune host.
• Naturally acquired Placental transfer of antibody
(Passive)
• Recovery from disease (Active)
• Artificially acquired Administration of antitoxin
(Passive)
• Vaccination (Active)
Adaptive immunity is mediated by B or T •
lymphocytes and stimulated by exposure to
infectious agents.
I- Humoral Immunity (Antibody Immunity): •
Type of immunity that is mediated by secreted •
antibodies produced by the B-lymphocyte cells.
Secreted antibodies bind to antigens on the surfaces
of invading microbes (such as viruses or bacteria),
which exposure them for destruction.
Humoral immunity is called as such, because it •
involves substances found in the body fluids.
II- Cell-mediated immunity (Cellular Immunity): •

Since antibodies are useless against intracellular antigens, cell-mediated •

immunity is needed. Two major populations of T cells mediate cellular

immunity:

1. CD4 cells are helper T cells (TH). •

2. CD8 cells are cytotoxic T cells (TC) that destroy cells •

harboring foreign antigens.

Regulatory T cells that release cytokines, which suppress the •

activity of both T cells and B.
 Cellular Immunity .vs. Antibody Immunity
Cellular Immunity Antibody or Humoral Immunity

• Carried out by T-Cells • Carried out by B-cells

• Infected cells are killed by Cytotoxic T –Cells. • Antibodies are produced and dumped into
blood stream.
• Antibodies bind to antigens and deactivate
them.
 The innate and adaptive immune response
Characteristics Cells Molecules
Innate immunity
Responds rapidly Physical barriers Humoral factors
No memory Phagocytes (PMNs Complement
No specificity and macrophages) Acute phase
No prior exposure is Natural killer cells Proteins
required Cytokines
Adaptive immunity
Responds Slowly T cells Antibodies
Memory B cells Cytokines
Highly specific Dendritic cells Granzymes
Present after exposure
to an Ag
Immunogens: substance that induce specific immune response. •
Antigen: substance that react with the product of specific
immune response.

Hapten: substance that are non-immunogenic, small molecules •

and can never induces immune response by themselves unless
coupled to a carrier molecules, but can react with the specific
immune products therefore haptens have the property of
antigenicity but not immunogenicity.

Antibody: specific protein which is produce in response to •

immunogen and reacts with an antigen
Epitope or antigenic determinant: •
the portion of antigen (Ag) that combines with •
antibody (Ab).
Adjuvant: substance that can enhance the •
immune response to an immunogen. •
Paratope: the portion of antibody (Ab) that •
combines with antigen (Ag).