Cellular Communication

Introduction to Cellular Networks

Pangun Park
Chungnam National University
Information Communications Engineering

1
 Visible Elements of a Mobile Network

Base Station
Terminal

In this course: User Equipment (UE) =

Terminal = Cell phone
Pangun Park (CNU) 2
The transmission power of a UE (User Equipment) is typically
The Need to Cover the Entire Territory with Base Stations
0.2 W (200 mW)
§ The
The transmission
maximum power
range isoftypically
a UE (User Equipment)
several is typically
kilometers for a signa
0.2 W (200 mW)
this strength
§ The maximum range is typically several kilometers for a signal of
this strength

Pangun Park (CNU) 3

 The Need to Cover the Entire Territory with Base Stations
The operator deploys base stations on the territory to be
covered
§ The so that deploys
operator a terminalbase is always
stations less
on the than to
territory a few kilometers
be covered
awayso that a
from a terminal is always less than a few kilometers away from
base station
a base station
In practice, it’s not always true!
§ In practice, it’s not always true!
How do we know that we have network access?
§ How do we know that we have network access?

Pangun Park (CNU) 4

 General Principle of the Beacon Channel
§ Each base station broadcasts a signal regularly
Ø Which indicates its existence
nciple of the Beacon Channel
Ø Which gives the characteristics of the network (example: identity of
the operator)
§ Concept
on broadcasts of the regularly
a signal beacon channel (broadcast control channel)
§ By measuring the strength of the signal received, each terminal
es its existence
can indicate
he characteristics if it receives
of the network theidentity
(example: base station well or not
of the operator)

beacon channel
Received Received
trol channel) signal is signal is Signal is not
strong weak detected
he strength of the
, each terminal
t receives the
ll or not
Syldavie Syldavie NO
Télécom Télécom NETWORK

Pangun Park (CNU) 5

The Case of a RuralThe Case of a Rural Zone
Zone

nANFR,
Source: Source: ANFR,
consulted consulted
the 22/07/2015 the 22/07/2015
on http://www.cartoradio.fr on http://www.cartoradio.fr

Pangun Park (CNU) 6

 The Case of a Suburban Zone
The Case of a Suburban Zone

Source:n Source:
ANFR, ANFR,
consulted consulted
the 22/07/2015 the 22/07/2015
on http://www.cartoradio.fr on http://www.cartoradio.fr

Pangun Park (CNU) 7

 The Case of an Urban Zone
The Case of an Urban Zone

n Source:
Source: ANFR, consultedANFR, consulted
the 22/07/2015 the 22/07/2015
on http://www.cartoradio.fr on http://www.cartoradio.fr

Pangun Park (CNU) 8

 Capacity and Coverage
§ Dividing the territory up into cells
Ø Each cell is served by a base station
Ø The division into cells is not perceptible to the user
• Passing from one cell to another is, ideally, imperceptible
Ø The capacity of a cell in Mbit/s does not depend on
the size of the cell
§ Urban zone = high user density
Ø The base stations are deployed to provide sufficient
capacity
Ø Deploy enough base stations so that the capacity in
Mbit/s per is superior to the traffic created by
the customers
§ Rural zone = low user density
Ø The base stations are deployed to ensure coverage
Ø Deploy enough base stations so that, at every point of
the territory, a terminal is under the range of a base
station and can connect
Pangun Park (CNU) 9
 Outline
§ Cellular Telephony
§ Cellular Frequency Reuse
§ Cellular Essential Functionalities
Ø MTSO Functionalities
Ø Handover/Power control/Traffic engineering
Ø Mobility Management

Pangun Park (CNU) 10

 Cellular Network Organization

§ Cellular communication is always between mobile and base station (not

directly between mobiles)
§ Base Station (BS) – includes an antenna, a controller, and a number of
receivers
§ Mobile telecommunications switching office (MTSO) – connects calls
between mobile units
§ Two types of channels available between mobile unit and BS
Ø Control channels – used to exchange information having to do with setting up and
maintaining calls
Ø Traffic channels – carry voice or data connection between users
Pangun Park (CNU) 11
 Rationale behind Cellular Network

Source:(FCC

§ Solves the problem of spectral congestion and increases user

capacity.
§ Offer very high capacity in a limited spectrum
§ Reuse of radio channel in different cells.
§ Enable a fixed number of channels to serve an arbitrarily large
number of users by reusing the channel throughout the coverage
region.
Pangun Park (CNU) 12
 Cellular Network Basic Principles
Cell area vs. Signal to Interference Ratio

Cell area BSA Cell area BSB

f3
f5 f2
receive level
BSA
receive level
BSB f4 f6 f5
f1 f4
f3 f7 f1
S/I ratio

f2
location

§ Cellular communication is always between mobile and base station

Mobile and Wireless Networking
2013 / 2014
5

Ø Each cellular base station is allocated a group of radio channels within a small
geographic area called a cell.
Ø Neighboring cells are assigned different channel groups. Mobile and Wireless
Ø By limiting the coverage area to within the boundary of the cell, the channel groups may2013 / 201
be reused to cover different cells.
Ø Keep interference levels within tolerable limits.
Ø Frequency reuse or frequency planning

Pangun Park (CNU) 13

 Cellular Network Beginnings
Cellular Network Beginnings
Cellular Network
§ AT&T Bell Labs designed a cellularBeginnings
structure to reuse frequency.
AT&T BellNoLabs designed cells
two adjacent a cellular structure
use the to reuse
same frequency.
frequency. No two adjacent cells use the same frequency.
§ 1977: FCC authorized two commercial deployments
1977: FCCØauthorized twoBell
Chicago: Illinois commercial deployments
Chicago: Illinois Bell
Ø Washington, DC: American Radio telephone Service
Washington,
Ø Both DC: American
services Radio telephone Service
started 1983
Both services started 1983
6 2 7 7
1 6 2 7 6 2
5 3 1 6 2 1
4 5 3 1 5 3
7 4 5 3 4
6 2 7 4 7
1 6 2 6 2

P. Bedell, “Cellular Networks: Design and Operation, A real World Perspective,” Outskirts Press, 2014, ISBN:9781478732082
ington University in St. Louis http://www.cse.wustl.edu/~jain/cse574-16/ ©2016 Raj Jain
15-3
Pangun Park (CNU) 14
 Initial Cellular System in US
Initial Cellular System in US
§ US was divided into
Ø 306 metropolitan service areas (MSAs)
Ø 75% of US population, 20% of area Densely populated à Small cell size
Ø 428 rural service areas (RSAs) Less populated à Larger cell size
§ Each area was originally allowed two competing carriers: A, B
Ø Bell (B)
Ø Alternative (A)
§ 832 channel-pairs in each area. 416 pairs per carrier.
45 MHz between transmit and receive frequencies
30 kHz per channel
1:7 Frequency reuse with hexagonal cells
§ Too many applicants à FCC started a lottery system
§ At least one system in every market by 1990

Pangun Park (CNU) 15

 Macro, Micro, Pico, Femto Cells
Macro, Micro, Pico, Femto Cells
§
Macro: Sections
Macro, of a city,
Micro, more
Pico, than
Femto
Macro: Sections of a city, more than 1 km radius
1 km
Cells radius
§ Micro:
Micro: Neighborhoods,
Neighborhoods, less1 km
less than than 1 km
§ Pico:
Pico: Busy
Busy public
public areas:areas: Malls, airports,
Malls, airports, ..., 200 m …, 200 m
§ Femto:
Femto: Inside
Inside a home,
a home, 10 m 10 m

Ref: http://www.microwavejournal.com/articles/print/22784-high-efficiency-amplifier-for-picocells
Washington University in St. Louis http://www.cse.wustl.edu/~jain/cse574-16/ ©2016 Raj Jain
15-7

Pangun Park (CNU) 16

 Outline
§ Cellular Telephony
§ Cellular Frequency Reuse
§ Cellular Essential Functionalities
Ø MTSO Functionalities
Ø Handover/Power control/Traffic engineering
Ø Mobility Management

Pangun Park (CNU) 17

 Frequency Reuse
• Solves the problem of spectral conges
capacity. to avoid interference
§ Adjacent cells assigned different frequencies
or crosstalk • Offer very high capacity in a limited sp
§ Objective is to reuse frequency• in nearbyofcells
Reuse radio channel in different ce
Ø 10 to 50 frequencies assigned to each cell
• Enable a fixed number of channels to
Ø Transmission power controlled to limit power at that frequency escaping to
number of users by reusing the chan
adjacent cells
coverage region.
Ø The issue is to determine how many cells must intervene between two cells
Cell area vs. Signal to Interference Ratio
using the same frequency
Cell area BSA Cell area BSB

f3
f5 f2
receive level
BSA
receive level
BSB
f4 f6 f5
f1 f4
S/I ratio
f3 f7 f1
f2

location

Pangun Park (CNU) Mobile and Wireless Networking

5
18
2013 / 2014
 Cellular Geometries
§ Hexagonal pattern: Cells set up such that antennas of all neighbors are equidistant

d
1.

4
41

41

d
R
d
4

1.
d

d d
d d

d d
d

1.
14

41

d
d
4

4
1.

(a) Square pattern (b) Hexagonal pattern

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 Cluster Size and Reuse Distance
Cluster size and reuse distance
frequency group B

frequency group A Cluster with cluster size N

Reuse distance D
Co-channel cells

6
Pangun Park (CNU) Mobile and Wireless Networking 20
2013 / 2014
 Co-channel
Co-channel Interference (1) Interference

First Tier
Interfering cells

Source: Bala Kalyanasundaram, Wireless Networks (lecture notes)

15
Mobile and Wireless Networking
Pangun Park (CNU) 2013 / 2014 21
 Cellular Frequency Reuse
Cellular Frequency Reuse
Cellular Frequency Reuse

Cluster Size =4 Cluster Size =7

Cluster Size =19

Washington University in St. Louis http://www.cse.wustl.edu/~jain/cse574-16/ ©2016 Raj Jain

Pangun Park (CNU) 15-8 22

 Useantennas
Use of directional of Directional Antennas

position of the mobile

interference cells

18
Mobile and Wireless Networking
Pangun Park (CNU) 2013 / 2014 23
 Frequency Reuse
Frequency ReuseNotation
Notation
§ N×S×K
N×S×K frequency reusepattern
frequency reuse pattern
§ N=Number ofcells
N=Number of cellsper
percluster
cluster
S=Number
§ S= Number of
of sectors
sectorsinina acell
cell
K = Number of frequency allocations per cell
§ K = Number of frequency allocations per cell

1X3X3

Washington University in St. Louis http://www.cse.wustl.edu/~jain/cse574-16/ ©2016 Raj Jain

15-12
Pangun Park (CNU) 24
Frequency Reuse Notation
Frequency (Cont)
Reuse Notation

1x3x1 Frequency1x3x3
Reuse Notation (Cont) 1x1x1

3x1x1 3x3x1 3x3x3

Pangun Park (CNU) 25

http://www.cse.wustl.edu/~jain/cse574-16/
Fractional Frequency Reuse Reuse
Fractional Frequency
§ Users close Fractional Frequencysubchannels
Reuse
Users close to to
thethe
BSBSuseuse
allall frequency
frequency subchannels
§ Users
Users at cell
at the the boundary
cell boundary
use onlyuse only aoffraction
a fraction availableof available
subchannels
subchannels
F1

F1,F2,F3
F2

F1,F2,F3
F3

F1,F2,F3

Washington University in St. Louis http://www.cse.wustl.edu/~jain/cse574-16/ ©2016 Raj Jain

15-14
Pangun Park (CNU) 26
 Outline
§ Cellular Telephony
§ Cellular Frequency Reuse
§ Cellular Essential Functionalities
Ø MTSO Functionalities
Ø Handover/Power control/Traffic engineering
Ø Mobility Management

Pangun Park (CNU) 27

 Steps in an MTSO Controlled Call between Mobile Users
§ Mobile unit initialization
§ Mobile-originated call
§ Paging
Ø Broadcast a message in a certain area to inform the user about incoming
communication
§ Call accepted
M M
T T
S S
O O

§ Ongoing call
(a) Monitor for strongest signal (b) Request for connection

§ Handover
M M
T T
S S
O O

(c) Paging (d) Call accepted

M M
T T
S S
O O

(e) Ongoing call (f) Handoff

Mobile telecommunications switching office (MTSO)

Pangun Park (CNU) 28
 Example of Mobile Cellular Call

M M
T T
S S
O O

(a) Monitor for strongest signal (b) Request for connection

M M
T T
S S
O O

(c) Paging (d) Call accepted

M M
T T
S S
O O

(e) Ongoing call (f) Handoff

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 Additional Functions in an MTSO Controlled Call
§ Call blocking
§ Call termination
§ Call drop
§ Calls to/from fixed and remote mobile subscriber

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 Remind Mobile Radio Propagation Effects
§ Signal strength
Ø Must be strong enough between base station and mobile unit to maintain
signal quality at the receiver
Ø Must not be so strong as to create too much co-channel interference with
channels in another cell using the same frequency band
§ Fading
Ø Signal propagation effects may disrupt the signal and cause errors

Pangun Park (CNU) 31

 Handover: Basic Principle
§ Change radio channel during communication
§ Reasons for handover (USA: Handoff):
Ø User(mobile) is moving between cells while communicating
• Cell in a mobile cellular system is between 10 m and 35 km
Ø Current channel has bad radio conditions
Ø Balance traffic load between cells
Ø Minimize mobile power
Handover consumption
triggering and global interference level
algorithms (3)
BS1 BS2

Signal strength Signal strength

from BS 1 from BS 2

T1

h
T2

T3

ABC D

29
Pangun Park (CNU) Mobile and Wireless Networking 32
2013 / 2014
 Types of Handover
Handover triggering algorithms (3)

§ Mobile-initiated BS1 BS2

Signal strength Signal strength

Ø Mobile makes decision from BS 1 from BS 2

T1

§ Network-initiated h
T2

Ø Network makes decision T3

§ Mobile-assisted
Ø Mobile provides information ABC D

• E.g. about signal strength of base stations

Network makes decision
29
Ø Mobile and Wireless Networking
2013 / 2014

Pangun Park (CNU) 33

 Handover Phases
§ A. Monitoring and link measurement
§ B. Target cell determination and handover triggering
Handover triggering algorithms (3)
BS1 BS2

§ C. Handover execution Signal strength

from BS 1
Signal strength
from BS 2

T1

h
T2

T3

ABC D

§ (A) Monitoring and link measurement

Ø Performed continuously Mobile and Wireless Networking
2013 / 2014
29

Ø In GSM: done by mobile, data sent to network ~2x per second

Ø Many parameters (for 6 most powerful neighboring base stations):
• Received signal strength indication (RSSI) (averaged)
• Bit error ratio (BER)
• Distance to base station (from timing advance)
• BS identity

Pangun Park (CNU) 34

 (B) Target Cell Determination and Handover Triggering
§ Target cell determination:
§ Mobile / System maintains lists of base stations / channels:
Ø Active set
• currently used
Ø Candidate set
• good enough for handover
Ø Neighbor set
• almost good enough
Ø Remaining set
• other channels

Pangun Park (CNU) 35

 (B) Handover Triggering Algorithms (1)
Handover triggering algorithms (3)
BS1 BS2

Signal strength Signal strength

from BS 1 from BS 2

T1

h
T2

T3

ABC D

§ Relative signal strength

Ø Select BS with strongest (averaged) signal pos. A (see figure) 29
Mobile and Wireless Networking

§ Relative signal strength with threshold

2013 / 2014

Ø If current signal < threshold, select BS with strongest signal

Ø Threshold = T1: pos. A
Ø Threshold = T2: pos. B
Ø Threshold = T3: pos. D (or dropped call?)
§ Relative signal strength with hysteresis
Ø If new signal > current signal + hysteresis margin h, select new BS pos. C
Pangun Park (CNU) 36
 (B) Handover Triggering Algorithms (2)
§ Relative signal strength with hysteresis and threshold
Ø If current signal < threshold and new signal > current signal + h, select new BS
Ø Threshold = T1 or T2: pos. C
Ø Threshold = T3: pos D
§ Prediction techniques
Ø Use expected value of signal strength, e.g., based on mobile speed and
Handover triggering algorithms (3)
direction
BS1 BS2

Signal strength Signal strength

from BS 1 from BS 2

T1

h
T2

T3

ABC D

Pangun Park (CNU) 29 37

Mobile and Wireless Networking
 (C) Different Handover Execution Procedures
§ Hard handover
Ø Radio link to existing base station is released before radio link to new base station is
established
Ø Network link is established in advance (from switch/router to base station)
Ø Interruption of data flow
Ø Mobile only needs to support 1 radio channel
§ Seamless handover
Ø Radio link to existing base station is released after radio link to new base station is
established
Ø For a short period, 2 radio links are available, during which network link is switched.
Ø No interruption of data flow
Ø Mobile needs to transmit on 2 channels simultaneously
§ Soft handover (used in CDMA)
Ø 2 (or more!) radio links are available and active for a relatively long period of time
Ø Data is flowing over 2 (or more) radio links simultaneously
Ø Improved Quality of Service

Pangun Park (CNU) 38

 Handover Types (Network View)
Handover types (network view)
§ 1. Intra-cell handover
Ø Same base station, different channel (e.g. to avoid interference)
1. Intra-cell handover
§ 2. Inter-cell
! Samehandover
base station, different channel (e.g. to avoid interference)
Ø
2. Other base station
Inter-cell handover
§ 3. Inter-system
! Other base handover
station
3. Inter-system
Ø E.g. between 3Ghandover
and LTE
! E.g. between 3G and LTE
§ More types later
More types later
1
2 3
MS MS MS

Pangun Park (CNU) 31 39

 Layered Cell Structures

§ Small cells:
Ø High capacity
Layered cell structures
Ø Many handovers for fast-moving mobiles
Small cells:
§ Large cells:
high capacity
!
Ø Limited capacity
! many handovers for fast-moving mobiles
Ø Fewer handovers
Large cells:
§ Solution: ! limited capacity
! fewer handovers
Ø Layered Cell Structure
Solution:
Layered Cell Structures

32
Mobile and Wireless Networking
Pangun Park (CNU) 2013 / 2014 40
 Outline
§ Cellular Telephony
§ Cellular Frequency Reuse
§ Cellular Essential Functionalities
Ø MTSO Functionalities
Ø Handover/Power control/Traffic engineering
Ø Mobility Management

Pangun Park (CNU) 41

 Power Control
§ Reasons to include dynamic power control in a cellular system
Ø Received power must be sufficiently above the background noise for effective
communication
Ø Desirable to minimize power in the transmitted signal from the mobile
• Reduce co-channel interference, alleviate health concerns, save battery
power
Ø In SS systems using CDMA, it’s necessary to equalize the received power level
from all mobile units at the BS

Pangun Park (CNU) 42

 Types of Power Control

§ Open-loop power control

Ø Depends solely on mobile unit
Ø No feedback from BS
Ø Not as accurate as closed-loop, but can react quicker to fluctuations
in signal strength
§ Closed-loop power control
Ø Adjusts signal strength in reverse channel based on metric of
performance
Ø BS makes power adjustment decision and communicates to mobile
on control channel

Pangun Park (CNU) 43

 Traffic Engineering
§ Ideally, available channels would equal number of subscribers
active at one time
§ In practice, not feasible to have capacity handle all possible load
§ For N simultaneous user capacity and L subscribers
ØL < N – nonblocking system
Ø L > N – blocking system

Pangun Park (CNU) 44

 Mobility Management
§ Mobile has no fixed point of attachment to the network
Ø During call handover needs to be performed
Ø In between calls, mobility management is needed, to allow for timely call setup
§ Cell selection
Ø Makes mobile ready for network access
§ Location management
Ø Allows mobile to roam
• roaming: move between points of attachment / networks while still receiving service
Ø Enable network to find mobile for incoming call
§ Authentication and privacy are very important aspects!

Pangun Park (CNU) 45

 Cell Selection/Reselection
§ Record data transmitted by BSs to Mobiles
§ Be ready to access network
§ Inform network about movement
Ø Search for system carriers
• Use list, or
• Scan all channels
Ø Select most powerful carriers
Ø Collect system data (listen to broadcast channel)
• Access allowed
• Access parameters
• Synchronization
Ø Register with the network
• Provide identity, location
Ø If BS no longer received, select better BS
Ø Report (new) location to network
Ø If network no longer received, reselect network

Pangun Park (CNU) 46

 Location Management
§ Location management procedures enable the network to locate a
mobile or its user (GSM) in case of incoming communication
§ Location registration
Ø Register the approximate location (location area) of the mobile/user
§ Paging
Ø Broadcast a message in a certain area to inform the user about incoming
communication

Pangun Park (CNU) 47

 Location Registration
§ Periodic location updating
Ø Mobile transmits identity / location to network periodically
§ Location updating on LA crossing
Ø Each base station broadcasts its location area (LA)
Ø If broadcasted LA is different from current LA, mobile invokes location
update procedure
§ Hybrid method (e.g. GSM, 3G, LTE)
Ø Mobile sends location update on LA crossing, or after certain period without
LA change.
Ø Allows system to recover from database failure, and to clean database

Pangun Park (CNU) 48

 Paging
§ Broadcasting by base stations in the location area of ID of
mobile, so that mobile will contact the network (page reply).
§ Blank polling(GSM)
Ø Broadcast paging messages on all BSs in LA simultaneously
Ø Short delay
Ø High paging load
§ Sequential polling
Ø Try different (sets of) BSs sequentially
• BS(s) with highest likelihood first
(e.g., BS from which last LU was issued first)
Ø Less paging load
Ø Higher delay

Pangun Park (CNU) 49

 Location Area Size Optimization
§ Incoming call
Ø Lookup location area in database
Ø Perform paging in location area
§ Optimal location area size depends on
Ø Cost of location update procedure vs. paging procedure
Ø Incoming call rate
Ø User/mobile velocity

Pangun Park (CNU) 50

 Database Architecture for Location Management
§ Home Database
Ø Stores info about all subscribed mobiles/users:
• ID
• Location (e.g., visitor database id)
• Access rights
• Authentication(인증) info (possibly in separate authentication center)
Ø Starting point for finding the mobile/user
Ø Can be distributed, but user ID leads to unique Home Database
GSM: Home Location Register (HLR)
Mobile IP: Home Agent (HA)
§ Visitor Database
Ø Stores info about mobiles/users in its location areas
• Partial copy of home database info for mobile/user
• Location area of mobile/user
Ø Usually many (sometimes hierarchical)
GSM: Visitor Location Register (VLR)
Mobile IP: Foreign Agent (FA) (not IPv6)
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