The Mathematics of Networks (Chapter 7)

We have studied how to visit all the edges of a graph (via an

Euler path or circuit) and how to visit all the vertices (via a
Hamilton circuit).
The Mathematics of Networks (Chapter 7)
We have studied how to visit all the edges of a graph (via an
Euler path or circuit) and how to visit all the vertices (via a
Hamilton circuit).
What if we just want to connect all the vertices
together into a network?
The Mathematics of Networks (Chapter 7)
We have studied how to visit all the edges of a graph (via an
Euler path or circuit) and how to visit all the vertices (via a
Hamilton circuit).
What if we just want to connect all the vertices
together into a network?
In other words, What if we just want to connect all the
vertices together in a network?
The Mathematics of Networks (Chapter 7)
We have studied how to visit all the edges of a graph (via an
Euler path or circuit) and how to visit all the vertices (via a
Hamilton circuit).
What if we just want to connect all the vertices
together into a network?
In other words, What if we just want to connect all the
vertices together in a network?

I Roads, railroads
I Telephone lines
I Fiber-optic cable
 Darwin (DA)

Kununurra(KU) Cairns (CS)

Broome (BM)
Mount Isa (MI)
Mackay (MK)

Alice Springs(AS)

Uluru(UL) Brisbane (BR)

Adelaide (AD)
Perth Sydney (SY)
(PE)

Melbourne (ML) Canberra (CN)

Albany (AL)

Hobart (HO)
 Darwin (DA)

Kununurra(KU) Cairns (CS)

Broome (BM)
Mount Isa (MI)
Mackay (MK)

Alice Springs(AS)

Brisbane (BR)

Uluru(UL)

Adelaide (AD)
Perth Sydney (SY)
(PE)

Melbourne (ML) Canberra (CN)

Albany (AL)

Hobart (HO)
 Darwin (DA)

Kununurra(KU) Cairns (CS)

Broome (BM)
Mount Isa (MI)
Mackay (MK)

Alice Springs(AS)

Brisbane (BR)

Uluru(UL)

Adelaide (AD)
Perth Sydney (SY)
(PE)

Melbourne (ML) Canberra (CN)

Albany (AL)

Hobart (HO)

Too many edges!

 Darwin (DA)

Kununurra(KU) Cairns (CS)

Broome (BM)
Mount Isa (MI)
Mackay (MK)

Alice Springs(AS)

Brisbane (BR)

Uluru(UL)

Adelaide (AD)
Perth Sydney (SY)
(PE)

Melbourne (ML) Canberra (CN)

Albany (AL)

Hobart (HO)

Still too many edges

 Darwin (DA)

Kununurra(KU) Cairns (CS)

Broome (BM)
Mount Isa (MI)
Mackay (MK)

Alice Springs(AS)

Brisbane (BR)

Uluru(UL)

Adelaide (AD)
Perth Sydney (SY)
(PE)

Melbourne (ML) Canberra (CN)

Albany (AL)

Hobart (HO)

Just right
 Darwin (DA)

Kununurra(KU) Cairns (CS)

Broome (BM)
Mount Isa (MI)
Mackay (MK)

Alice Springs(AS)

Brisbane (BR)

Uluru(UL)

Adelaide (AD)
Perth Sydney (SY)
(PE)

Melbourne (ML) Canberra (CN)

Albany (AL)

Hobart (HO)

Another possibility
 Darwin (DA)

Kununurra(KU) Cairns (CS)

Broome (BM)
Mount Isa (MI)
Mackay (MK)

Alice Springs(AS)

Brisbane (BR)

Uluru(UL)

Adelaide (AD)
Perth Sydney (SY)
(PE)

Melbourne (ML) Canberra (CN)

Albany (AL)

Hobart (HO)

Not enough edges

Networks and Spanning Trees

Definition: A network is a connected graph.

Definition: A spanning tree of a network is a subgraph

that
1. connects all the vertices together; and
2. contains no circuits.

In graph theory terms, a spanning tree is a subgraph that is

both connected and acyclic.
 Darwin (DA)

Kununurra(KU) Cairns (CS)

Broome (BM)
Mount Isa (MI)
Mackay (MK)

Alice Springs(AS)

Brisbane (BR)

Uluru(UL)

Adelaide (AD)
Perth Sydney (SY)
(PE)

Melbourne (ML) Canberra (CN)

Albany (AL)

Hobart (HO)

A spanning tree
 Darwin (DA)

Kununurra(KU) Cairns (CS)

Broome (BM)
Mount Isa (MI)
Mackay (MK)

Alice Springs(AS)

Brisbane (BR)

Uluru(UL)

Adelaide (AD)
Perth Sydney (SY)
(PE)

Melbourne (ML) Canberra (CN)

Albany (AL)

Hobart (HO)

A spanning tree
 Darwin (DA)

Kununurra(KU) Cairns (CS)

Broome (BM)
Mount Isa (MI)
Mackay (MK)

Alice Springs(AS)

Brisbane (BR)

Uluru(UL)

Adelaide (AD)
Perth Sydney (SY)
(PE)

Melbourne (ML) Canberra (CN)

Albany (AL)

Not a spanning tree Hobart (HO)

(not connected)
 Darwin (DA)

Kununurra(KU) Cairns (CS)

Broome (BM)
Mount Isa (MI)
Mackay (MK)

Alice Springs(AS)

Brisbane (BR)

Uluru(UL)

Adelaide (AD)
Perth Sydney (SY)
(PE)

Melbourne (ML) Canberra (CN)

Albany (AL)

Not a spanning tree Hobart (HO)

(connected, but has a circuit)

 Darwin (DA)

Kununurra(KU) Cairns (CS)

Broome (BM)
Mount Isa (MI)
Mackay (MK)

Alice Springs(AS)

Brisbane (BR)

Uluru(UL)

Adelaide (AD)
Perth Sydney (SY)
(PE)

Melbourne (ML) Canberra (CN)

Albany (AL)

Not a spanning tree Hobart (HO)

(connected, but has a circuit)

The Number of Edges in a Spanning Tree

In a network with N vertices, how many edges does a

spanning tree have?
The Number of Edges in a Spanning Tree

I Imagine starting with N isolated vertices and adding

edges one at a time.
The Number of Edges in a Spanning Tree

I Imagine starting with N isolated vertices and adding

edges one at a time.
I Each time you add an edge, you either
I connect two components together, or
I close a circuit
The Number of Edges in a Spanning Tree

I Imagine starting with N isolated vertices and adding

edges one at a time.
I Each time you add an edge, you either
I connect two components together, or
I close a circuit
The Number of Edges in a Spanning Tree

I Imagine starting with N isolated vertices and adding

edges one at a time.
I Each time you add an edge, you either
I connect two components together, or
I close a circuit
I Stop when the graph is connected (i.e., has only one
component).
The Number of Edges in a Spanning Tree

I Imagine starting with N isolated vertices and adding

edges one at a time.
I Each time you add an edge, you either
I connect two components together, or
I close a circuit
I Stop when the graph is connected (i.e., has only one
component).
I You have added exactly N − 1 edges.
The Number of Edges in a Spanning Tree

I Imagine starting with N isolated vertices and adding

edges one at a time.
I Each time you add an edge, you either
I connect two components together, or
I close a circuit
I Stop when the graph is connected (i.e., has only one
component).
I You have added exactly N − 1 edges.

In a network with N vertices, every spanning tree has

exactly N − 1 edges.
The Number of Edges in a Spanning Tree

In a network with N vertices, every spanning tree has

exactly N − 1 edges.
The Number of Edges in a Spanning Tree

In a network with N vertices, every spanning tree has

exactly N − 1 edges.

Must every set of N − 1 edges form a spanning tree?

The Number of Edges in a Spanning Tree
Answer: No.
For example, suppose the network is K4 .

Spanning tree Spanning tree Not a spanning tree

Spanning Trees in K2 and K3

K2 1 2

1 1 1

K3
2 3 2 3 2 3
Spanning Trees in K4
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2

3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4

1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2

3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4

1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2

3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4

1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2

3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4
Facts about Spanning Trees

Suppose we have a network with N vertices.

1. Every spanning tree has exactly N − 1 edges.

Facts about Spanning Trees

Suppose we have a network with N vertices.

1. Every spanning tree has exactly N − 1 edges.

2. If a set of N − 1 edges is acyclic, then it connects all the

vertices, so it is a spanning tree.
Facts about Spanning Trees

Suppose we have a network with N vertices.

1. Every spanning tree has exactly N − 1 edges.

2. If a set of N − 1 edges is acyclic, then it connects all the

vertices, so it is a spanning tree.

3. If a set of N − 1 edges connects all the vertices, then it is

acyclic, so it is a spanning tree.
Facts about Spanning Trees

4. In a network with N vertices and M edges,

M ≥N −1

(otherwise it couldn’t possibly be connected!) That is,

M − N + 1 ≥ 0.

The number M − N + 1 is called the redundancy of the

network, denoted by R.
Facts about Spanning Trees

4. In a network with N vertices and M edges,

M ≥N −1

(otherwise it couldn’t possibly be connected!) That is,

M − N + 1 ≥ 0.

The number M − N + 1 is called the redundancy of the

network, denoted by R.

5. If R = 0, then the network is itself a tree.

If R > 0, then there are usually several spanning trees.
Counting Spanning Trees

We now know that every spanning tree of an N-vertex network

has exactly N − 1 edges.
Counting Spanning Trees

We now know that every spanning tree of an N-vertex network

has exactly N − 1 edges.

How many different spanning trees are there?

Counting Spanning Trees

We now know that every spanning tree of an N-vertex network

has exactly N − 1 edges.

How many different spanning trees are there?

Of course, this answer depends on the network itself.

Loops and Bridges

I If an edge of a network is a loop, then it is not in any

spanning tree.
Loops and Bridges

I If an edge of a network is a loop, then it is not in any

spanning tree.
I If an edge of a network is a bridge, then it must belong
to every spanning tree.
Loops and Bridges

I If an edge of a network is a bridge, then it must belong

to every spanning tree.
Loops and Bridges

I If an edge of a network is a bridge, then it must belong

to every spanning tree.

bridge
Loops and Bridges

I If an edge of a network is a bridge, then it must belong

to every spanning tree.
Loops and Bridges

I If an edge of a network is a bridge, then it must belong

to every spanning tree.
Loops and Bridges

I If an edge of a network is a bridge, then it must belong

to every spanning tree.
Loops and Bridges

I If an edge of a network is a bridge, then it must belong

to every spanning tree.
Counting Spanning Trees

We now know that every spanning tree of an N-vertex network

has exactly N − 1 edges.
Counting Spanning Trees

We now know that every spanning tree of an N-vertex network

has exactly N − 1 edges.

How many different spanning trees are there?

Counting Spanning Trees

We now know that every spanning tree of an N-vertex network

has exactly N − 1 edges.

How many different spanning trees are there?

Of course, this answer depends on the network itself.

Counting Spanning Trees
Counting Spanning Trees
Counting Spanning Trees
Counting Spanning Trees
Counting Spanning Trees
Counting Spanning Trees
Counting Spanning Trees

3 spanning trees x 3 spanning trees

of this triangle of this triangle

= 9 total spanning trees

Counting Spanning Trees

How many spanning

trees does this
network have?
Counting Spanning Trees

bridges How many spanning

trees does this
network have?
Counting Spanning Trees

bridges 3 How many spanning

4
trees does this
network have?

3 4
Counting Spanning Trees

bridges 3 How many spanning

4
trees does this
network have?

Answer:
4 4 x 3 x 3 x 4 = 144.
3
Counting Spanning Trees
If the graph has circuits that overlap, it is trickier to count
spanning trees. For example:

1 2

3 4
Counting Spanning Trees
If the graph has circuits that overlap, it is trickier to count
spanning trees. For example:

1 2

3 4

I There are N = 4 vertices =⇒

every spanning tree has N − 1 = 3 edges.
Counting Spanning Trees
If the graph has circuits that overlap, it is trickier to count
spanning trees. For example:

1 2

3 4

I There are N = 4 vertices =⇒

every spanning tree has N − 1 = 3 edges.
I List all the sets of three edges and cross out the ones that
are not spanning trees.
Counting Spanning Trees

1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2

3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4

1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2

3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4

1 2 1 2
10 ways to select three edges

3 4 3 4
Counting Spanning Trees

1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2

3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4

1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2

3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4

1 2 1 2
10 ways to select three edges
2 are not trees
3 4 3 4 Total: 8 spanning trees
The Number of Spanning Trees of KN
(Not in Tannenbaum!)

Since KN has N vertices, we know that every spanning tree of

KN has N − 1 edges.

How many different spanning trees are there?

The Number of Spanning Trees of KN
(Not in Tannenbaum!)

Since KN has N vertices, we know that every spanning tree of

KN has N − 1 edges.

How many different spanning trees are there?

We have already seen the answers for K2 , K3 , and K4 .

The Number of Spanning Trees of KN

Number of vertices (N) Number of spanning trees in KN

2 1
3 3
4 16
The Number of Spanning Trees of KN

Number of vertices (N) Number of spanning trees in KN

1 1
2 1
3 3
4 16
The Number of Spanning Trees of KN

Number of vertices (N) Number of spanning trees in KN

1 1
2 1
3 3
4 16
5 125
The Number of Spanning Trees of KN

Number of vertices (N) Number of spanning trees in KN

1 1
2 1
3 3
4 16
5 125
6 1296
The Number of Spanning Trees of KN

Number of vertices (N) Number of spanning trees in KN

1 1
2 1
3 3
4 16
5 125
6 1296
7 16807
8 262144
The Number of Spanning Trees of KN

Number of vertices (N) Number of spanning trees in KN

1 1
2 1
3 3
4 16
5 125
6 1296
7 16807
8 262144

What’s the pattern?

The Number of Spanning Trees of KN

Number of vertices (N) Number of spanning trees in KN

1 1
2 1
3 3
4 16
5 125
6 1296
7 16807
8 262144
The Number of Spanning Trees of KN

Number of vertices (N) Number of spanning trees in KN

1 1
2 1
3 3
4 16 = 42
5 125
6 1296
7 16807
8 262144
The Number of Spanning Trees of KN

Number of vertices (N) Number of spanning trees in KN

1 1
2 1
3 3
4 16 = 42
5 125 = 53
6 1296
7 16807
8 262144
The Number of Spanning Trees of KN

Number of vertices (N) Number of spanning trees in KN

1 1
2 1
3 3 = 31
4 16 = 42
5 125 = 53
6 1296
7 16807
8 262144
The Number of Spanning Trees of KN

Number of vertices (N) Number of spanning trees in KN

1 1
2 1
3 3 = 31
4 16 = 42
5 125 = 53
6 1296 = 64
7 16807
8 262144
The Number of Spanning Trees of KN

Number of vertices (N) Number of spanning trees in KN

1 1
2 1
3 3 = 31
4 16 = 42
5 125 = 53
6 1296 = 64
7 16807 = 75
8 262144
The Number of Spanning Trees of KN

Number of vertices (N) Number of spanning trees in KN

1 1
2 1
3 3 = 31
4 16 = 42
5 125 = 53
6 1296 = 64
7 16807 = 75
8 262144 = 86
The Number of Spanning Trees of KN

Number of vertices (N) Number of spanning trees in KN

1 1
2 1 = 20
3 3 = 31
4 16 = 42
5 125 = 53
6 1296 = 64
7 16807 = 75
8 262144 = 86
The Number of Spanning Trees of KN

Number of vertices (N) Number of spanning trees in KN

1 1 = 1−1
2 1 = 20
3 3 = 31
4 16 = 42
5 125 = 53
6 1296 = 64
7 16807 = 75
8 262144 = 86
The Number of Spanning Trees of KN

Number of vertices (N) Number of spanning trees in KN

1 1 = 1−1
2 1 = 20
3 3 = 31
4 16 = 42
5 125 = 53
6 1296 = 64
7 16807 = 75
8 262144 = 86

Cayley’s Formula:
The number of spanning trees in KN is NN−2 .
Cayley’s Formula:
The number of spanning trees in KN is NN−2 .

For example, K16 (the Australia graph!) has

1614 = 72, 057, 594, 037, 927, 936

spanning trees.

(By comparison, the number of Hamilton circuits is “only”

15! = 1, 307, 674, 368, 000.)