12-10-2023

DR. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR

TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVESITY, LONERE
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
CLASS: SECOND YEAR SEM.: III
A.Y.: 2023-2024
SUBJECT : ELECTRICAL MACHINE-I

UNIT- I & 2 TRANSFORMER

-PROF. A. R. BHAVSAR
Assistant Professor

1
 12-10-2023

ELECTRICAL MACHINE’s
1. TRANSFORMER
2. DC MACHINES
3. INDUCTION MACHINES
4. SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE

ELECTRICAL MACHINE- I
1] TRANSFORMER
2 DC MACHINES

ELECTRICAL MACHINE – II
3 INDUCTION MACHINES
4 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

2
 12-10-2023

BASIC LAW’S FOR ELECTRICAL MACHINES

 Faraday’s first law
 Faraday’s second law
 Right hand thumb rule
 Fleming’s right hand rule
 Fleming’s left hand rule
 Lenz’s law

Faraday's first law

Whenever the magnetic lines of flux linking with the coil or conductor, an emf gets
induced in the coil or conductor (or)
Whenever a conductor is moved in a magnetic field, conductor cuts the magnetic flux
line, hence an emf is induced in the conductor, and the magnitude of the induced emf is
given by,
e =Blv sinθ ,
where B is the magnetic flux density in wb/m²,
l is the active length of the conductor in meters and
v is the constant velocity in m/sec
Θ angle between B and v

3
 12-10-2023

Faraday's second law

It states that the magnitude of emf induced in the coil is equal to the rate of change of
flux that linkages with the coil. The emf induced in the coil is the product of number
of turns in the coil and flux associated with the coil.

The induced emf in a coil is equal to the rate of change of flux linkage.
ε = -N
Where,
•ε is the electromotive force
• is the magnetic flux
•N is the number of turns
The direction (polarity) of dynamically induced emf can be determined by the
following rule, known as Fleming's right hand rule or Lenz's law

According to Faradays law, Basic requirement's to generate emf are

1. Magnetic field
2. Set of conductors
3.Relative variation in space or time between magnetic field and set of
conductors

There are two possibilities to generate emf by using Faradays law:

a) Relative space variation
b) Relative time variation

The emf induced in set of conductors due to relative space variation

w.r.t steady state magnetic field is called Dynamically induced emf.
Ex: DC Generator

The emf induced in set of stationary conductors due to relative time

variation w.r.t magnetic field is called statically induced emf.
Ex: Transformer

4
 12-10-2023

RIGHT HAND THUMB RULE

If we grasp the conductor in the palm of right hand so that the thumb point in the direction of
the flow of current and the direction in which the figure curl gives the direction of field lines.

Fleming's right-hand rule

Hold the thumb, the first and the second (or middle) finger of the right hand at right angles to each other.
First finger point in the direction of lines of force, and the thumb point in the direction of conductor
motion, then the second finger gives the direction of the induced emf.

5
 12-10-2023

Fleming left hand rule

Hold the thumb, the first and the second (or middle) finger of the left hand at right
angles to each other. If the first finger points to the direction of field, the second finger
to the direction of current, the thumb will point to the direction of force or motion.

Lenz's law
An induced electromotive force generates a current that induces a counter magnetic
field that opposes the magnetic field generating the current.
*effect opposes the cause
Lorentz's force equation.
Whenever a current carrying conductor is place under a magnetic field, it experiences
a force. The magnitude of the force is given by
F = BIL Newton‘s
where B is the magnetic flux density in wb/m²
I is the current in amperes and
F is the force in Newton‘s

6
 12-10-2023

What is a Transformer ?
• Transformers are electrical static devices used to convert or “Transform" AC voltage from one
level to another level. (high to low or low to high).

• It is most commonly used to increase (‘step up’) or decrease (‘step down’) voltage levels between
circuits.

• It does not change the frequency of the system, it can be treated as constant frequency device.

• Transformer transfer almost same amount of power from one circuit to another circuit, it can be
treated as constant power device.

• A transformer is defined as a passive electrical device that transfers electrical energy from one
circuit to another through the process of electromagnetic induction.

7
 12-10-2023

Working Principle of Transformer

Mutual induction between two or more windings (also known as coils)

allows for electrical energy to be transferred between circuits.

Transformer Theory

Say you have one winding (also known as a coil) which is supplied by an
alternating electrical source. The alternating current through the winding produces a
continually changing and alternating flux that surrounds the winding.

If another winding is brought close to this winding, some portion of this alternating
flux will link with the second winding. As this flux is continually changing in its
amplitude and direction, there must be a changing flux linkage in the second
winding or coil.

According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, there will be an EMF

induced in the second winding. If the circuit of this secondary winding is closed,
then a current will flow through it. This is the basic working principle of a
transformer.

8
 12-10-2023

Let , The winding which receives electrical power from the source is known as the ‘primary winding’. In
the diagram below this is the ‘First Coil’.

The winding which gives the desired output voltage due to mutual induction is commonly known as the
‘secondary winding’. This is the ‘Second Coil’in the diagram above.

A transformer that increases voltage between the primary to secondary windings is defined as a step-up
transformer (V2 > V1). A transformer that decreases voltage between the primary to secondary windings is
defined as a step-down transformer (V2<V1).

Whether the transformer increases or decreases the voltage level depends on the relative number of turns
between the primary and secondary side of the transformer.

If there are more turns on the primary coil than the secondary coil then the voltage will decrease (step down)
(N1>N2).
If there are less turns on the primary coil than the secondary coil then the voltage will increase (step up)
(N1<N2).
{ε = -N }

----While the diagram of the transformer above is theoretically possible in an ideal transformer – it is not very
practical. This is because in the open air only a very tiny portion of the flux produced from the first coil will
link with the second coil. So the current that flows through the closed circuit connected to the secondary
winding will be extremely small (and difficult to measure)

9
 12-10-2023

The rate of change of flux linkage depends upon the amount of linked flux with the second winding. So
ideally almost all of the flux of primary winding should link to the secondary winding. This is effectively
and efficiently done by using a core type transformer. This provides a low reluctance path common to both
of the windings.

The purpose of the transformer core is to provide a low reluctance path, through which the maximum
amount of flux produced by the primary winding is passed through and linked with the secondary winding.
The current that initially passes through the transformer when it is switched on is known as the transformer
inrush current.

Transformer Parts And Construction

The three main parts of a transformer:
•Primary Winding of Transformer
•Magnetic Core of Transformer
•Secondary Winding of Transformer

Primary Winding of Transformer

Which produces magnetic flux when it is connected to an electrical
source.

Magnetic Core of Transformer

The magnetic flux produced by the primary winding, that will pass
through this low reluctance path linked with secondary winding
and create a closed magnetic circuit.

Secondary Winding of Transformer

The flux, produced by primary winding, passes through the core,
will link with the secondary winding. This winding also wounds
on the same core and gives the desired output of the transformer.

10
 12-10-2023

The following are the various transformer parts:

1.Core
2.Winding
3.Tank
4.Terminals and bushings
5.Transformer oil
6.Oil Conservator
7.Breather
8.Radiators and fans
9.Explosion vent
10.Buchholz relay

11
12-10-2023

12
 12-10-2023

Symbol of Transformer

13
 12-10-2023

Types of Transformer
• Step Up Transformer And Step Down Transformer
• Three Phase TransformerAnd Single Phase Transformer
• Electrical Power Transformer, Distribution Transformer And Instrument Transformer
• Autotransformer
• As Per Core
Core Type Transformer
Shell Type Transformer
• As Per Cooling System
Self Cooled Transformer
Air Cooled Transformer
Oil Cooled Transformer

Core type and Shell Type Transformer

(a) Core type transformer (b) shell type transformer

14
 12-10-2023

Differences Between Core Type and Shell Type Transformer

1.In core type transformer the core surrounds the windings whereas in shell type transformer
the winding surrounds the core of the transformer.
2.In core type transformer the lamination is cut in the form of L-shape whereas, in shell type
transformer, the laminations are cut in the E and L shapes.
3.The cross-section area of the core type transformer is rectangular, whereas the cross-section
area of the shell type transformer is square, cruciform two slipped, or three stepped in shapes.
4.The core type transformer requires more copper conductor as compared to shell type
transformer because in core type transformer the winding is placed on the separate limbs or
legs.
5.The core type transformer is also called cylindrical or core winding transformer because their
windings are arranged as the concentric coil. In shell type transformer, the low voltage winding
and the high voltage winding are put in the form of the sandwich, and hence it is called the
sandwich or disc winding transformer.
6.The core type transformer has two limbs, whereas the shell type transformer has three limbs.
7.The mechanical strength of the core type transformer is low as compared to shell type
transformer because the shell type transformer has bracings.

15
 12-10-2023

8. The core type transformer required less insulation as compared to shell type transformer
because shell type transformer has three limbs.
9. In core type transformer the flux is equally distributed to the side limb of the transformer
whereas, in shell type transformer, the central limb carries the whole of the flux and the
side limbs carry the half of the flux.
10.In core type transformer both the primary and the secondary windings are placed on the
side limbs whereas, in shell type transformer, the windings are placed on the central limbs
of the transformer.
11.The core type transformer has two magnetic circuits whereas the shell type transformer
has one magnetic circuit.
12.The losses in a core type transformer are more as compared to shell type transformer
because the core type transformer consists two magnetic circuits.
13.In core type transformer few windings are removed for maintenance. In shell type
transformer numbers of the winding are required to remove for the maintenance.
14.The output of the core type transformer is less because it has more losses as compared to
the shell-type transformer.
15.The winding of the shell type transformer is distributed type, and hence heat is dissipated
naturally, whereas, in core type transformer, the natural cooling is not possible

•Where:
• VP – is the Primary Voltage
• VS – is the Secondary Voltage
• NP – is the Number of Primary Windings
• NS – is the Number of Secondary Windings
• Φ (phi) – is the Flux Linkage

16
 12-10-2023

EMF EQUATION OF TRANSFORMER

As the magnetic flux varies sinusoidally, Φ = Φmax sinωt, then the basic relationship between induced emf, ( E )
in a coil winding of N turns is given by:
emf = turns x rate of change of flux linkage
E= -N
E1 = -N1 Φm sinωt
= -N1 Φmax COS ωt ω …(-cos ωt = sin(ωt-90))
E1 = N1 ω Φm sin(ωt-90)
at ωt=π
E1 max= N1 ω Φm
rms value of E1
E1= N1 ω Φm / 2
= 0.707 N1 ω Φm …………...(ω =2πf)
= 4.44 N1 Φm f ……… (Φm = Bm An )
E1= 4.44 N1 f Bm An
Similarlly,
E2= 4.44 N2 f Bm An
Where:
• ƒ – is the flux frequency in Hertz, = ω/2π
• Ν – is the number of coil windings.
• Φ – is the amount of flux in webers

EMF EQUATION OF TRANSFORMER

E1= 4.44fN1Φmax
E2= 4.44fN2Φmax
Φmax= Bmax An
Φmax= maximum flux
Bmax = maximum flux density
An = net cross section area of the core
Emf/turn= E1/N1 = E2/N2= 4.44fΦmax

K = TRASFORMATION RATIO
TURNS RATIO= N1/N2 = E1/E2
transformation ratio(K) = 1/(turns ratio)

17
 12-10-2023

Concept of Ideal Transformer and Practical Transformer

Idea transformer is nothing but a transformer which has 100% efficiency. In this transformer there are two purely
inductive coils. So this is no iron loss, no copper loss, as well as there is no I2R losses. Also this is no ohmic resistance
drop and no leakage drop. Hence this is concept of ideal transformer.

An ideal transformer is one that has

1. no winding resistance
2.no leakage flux i.e., the same flux links both the windings
3.no iron losses (i.e., eddy current and hysteresis losses) in
the core

A practical transformer differs from the ideal transformer

in many respects. The practical transformer has,
1. iron losses,
2. winding resistances and,
3. magnetic leakage, giving rise to leakage reactance.

Ideal Transformer Practical Transformer

It has 100% efficiency. It has below 100% efficiency.

It has no losses. It has no losses.

Purely inductive material is used. It is two purely inductive material used.

It has no I2R losses. It has I2R losses.

It has no iron loss. It has iron loss.

There is no ohmic resistance drop. There is ohmic resistance drop.

It has no leakage drop. It has leakage drop.

In it ideal condition. In it practical condition.

It is not used in practical condition. It is used in practical condition.

18
 12-10-2023

LOSSES IN TRANSFORMER
1. CORE / IRON LOSS
HYSTERESIS LOSS
EDDY CURRENT LOSS
2. COPPER LOSS
3. STRAY LOSS- LEAKAGE OF FLUX
4. DIELECTRIC LOSSES- DUE TO INSULATION
5. MAGNETOSTRICTION LOSS- SOUND

Iron Losses
LOSSES IN TRANSFORMER
Iron losses are caused by the alternating flux in the core of the transformer as this loss occurs in the core it is also known as Core loss.
Iron loss is further divided into hysteresis and eddy current loss.

Hysteresis Loss
The core of the transformer is subjected to an alternating magnetizing force, and for each cycle of emf, a hysteresis loop is traced out.
Power is dissipated in the form of heat known as hysteresis loss and given by the equation shown below:
= 1.6 fV watt
ℎ ℎ
Where
ℎ is a proportionality constant which depends upon the volume and quality of the material of the core used in the transformer,
•f is the supply frequency,
•Bmax is the maximum or peak value of the flux density.
The iron or core losses can be minimized by using silicon steel material for the construction of the core of the transformer.

Eddy Current Loss

When the flux links with a closed circuit, an emf is induced in the circuit and the current flows, the value of the current depends upon
the amount of emf around the circuit and the resistance of the circuit.
Since the core is made of conducting material, these EMFs circulate currents within the body of the material. These circulating
currents are called Eddy Currents. They will occur when the conductor experiences a changing magnetic field. As these currents are
not responsible for doing any useful work, and it produces a loss (I2R loss) in the magnetic material known as an Eddy Current Loss.
The eddy current loss is minimized by making the core with thin laminations.
The equation of the eddy current loss is given as:
= 2 2 2 watt

19
 12-10-2023

= 2 2 2 watt
Where,
• K – coefficient of eddy current. Its value depends upon the nature of magnetic material like volume and resistivity
e

of core material, the thickness of laminations

• B – maximum value of flux density in wb/m
m
2

• t – thickness of lamination in meters

• f – frequency of reversal of the magnetic field in Hz
• V – the volume of magnetic material in m 3

Copper Loss Or Ohmic Loss

These losses occur due to ohmic resistance of the transformer windings. If I and I are the primary and the secondary current.
1 2

R and R are the resistance of primary and secondary winding then the copper losses occurring in the primary and secondary
1 2

winding will be I 2R and I 2R respectively.

1 1 2 2

Therefore, the total copper losses will be

These losses varied according to the load and hence it is also known as variable losses. Copper losses vary as the square of the
load current.
Stray Loss
The occurrence of these stray losses is due to the presence of leakage field. The percentage of these losses are very small as
compared to the iron and copper losses so they can be neglected.
Dielectric Loss
Dielectric loss occurs in the insulating material of the transformer that is in the oil of the transformer, or in the solid insulations.
When the oil gets deteriorated or the solid insulation gets damaged, or its quality decreases, and because of this, the efficiency
of the transformer gets affected.

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF TRANSFORMER

Both the primary and secondary winding has resistance, denoted as R1 and R2 respectively.
Some leakage flux is present at both primary and secondary sides. This leakage gives rise to
leakage reactances at both sides, which are denoted as X1 and X2 respectively.
The applied voltage to the primary is V1 and voltage across the primary winding is E1. Total
current supplied to primary is I1. So the voltage V1 applied to the primary is partly dropped by
I1Z1 or I1R1 + j.I1X1 before it appears across primary winding.
The voltage appeared across winding is countered by primary induced emf E1.
So voltage equation of this portion of the transformer can be written as,
V1 – (I1R1 + j.I1X1)= E1
The equivalent circuit of primary side can be drawn as below,

20
 12-10-2023

The induced emf at secondary winding is E2 and the voltage applied across
the load is V2. So voltage equation of this portion of the transformer can be
written as,
V2 = E2 - (I2R2 + j.I2X2)
The equivalent circuit of secondary side can be drawn as below,

The core-loss resistance (Ro) and the magnetizing reactance (Xo) of a transformer can be
represented as the parallel combination of Ro and Xo is also known as the exciting circuit.
It is also known as no load component of the transformer.
The resistive and reactive branches of the excitation circuit can be represented as
1 1
0 = 0 =

21
 12-10-2023

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF TRANSFORMER

The resistance R1 and reactance X1 correspond to the winding resistance and leakage reactance of the primary
winding.
The resistance R2 and reactance X2 correspond to the winding resistance and leakage reactance of the secondary
winding.
The core-loss resistance (Ro) and the magnetizing reactance (Xo) of a transformer and is represented as the parallel
combination of Ro and Xo.
The total current I1 on the primary side is equal to the phasor sum of Io and I2’.
Load impedance ZL can be resistive, inductive or capacitive.

No load Components
The no-load primary current Io has two components, namely Im and Iw.
Where Im = magnetizing component = Io sin φo
and Iw = core-loss component = Io cos φo.
•Iw supplies for the no-load losses and is assumed to flow through the no-load resistance
which is also known as core-loss resistance (Ro).
•The magnetizing component, Im is assumed to be flowing through a reactance which is
known as magnetizing reactance, Xo.

•The parallel combination of Ro and Xo is also known as the exciting circuit.

From the equivalent circuit of transformer
Ro = V1/Iw and Xo = V1/Im.

•The core-loss resistance (Ro) and the magnetizing reactance (Xo) of a transformer are
determined by the open circuit test of transformer

22
 12-10-2023

1 1
• Turns ratio= =
2 2

• Transformation ratio= 2 = 2
= 2
= K= 1
1 1 1 2
Basically, we consider transformer having a 100% efficiency
So, primary side power = secondary side power
1 1= 2 2
2 1
= =K
1 2

Equivalent Circuit parameters of Transformer Referred to Primary

• Transfer resistance from secondary side to primary side
2 2 ′
2 2 = 1 2
′
2 = 2
2
1
2
′ 2
2 = 2
• Similarly, Transfer reactance from secondary side to primary side
′ 2
2 = 2
• total resistance of transformer w.r.t primary side
′
01 = 1 + 2
• total reactance of transformer w.r.t primary side
′
01 = 1 + 2

23
 12-10-2023

Equivalent Circuit of Transformer Referred to Primary

So, the complete equivalent circuit of transformer referred to primary is shown in the figure
below

Equivalent Circuit parameters of Transformer Referred to secondary

• Transfer resistance from primary side to secondary side

2 2 ′
1 1 = 2 1
′
1= 1 1 2
2
′= 1 2
1
• Similarly, Transfer reactance from primary side to secondary side
′ 2
1 = 1
• total resistance of transformer w.r.t secondary side
′
02 = 2 + 1
• total reactance of transformer w.r.t secondary side
′
02 = 2 + 1

24
 12-10-2023

Equivalent Circuit of Transformer Referred to Secondary

In a similar way, the approximate equivalent circuit of transformer referred to secondary can be drawn.

Approximate Equivalent Circuit of Transformer

25
 12-10-2023

Transformer Efficiency
Where: Input, Output and Losses are all expressed in units of power.

Generally when dealing with transformers, the primary watts are called “volt-amps”, VAto
differentiate them from the secondary watts. Then the efficiency equation above can be modified
to:

26
 12-10-2023

Voltage Regulation of Transformer

electrical power transformer is open circuited, meaning that the load is not connected to the
secondary terminals. In this situation, the secondary terminal voltage of the transformer will be
its secondary induced emf E . 2

Whenever a full load is connected to the secondary terminals of the transformer, rated current
I flows through the secondary circuit and voltage drop comes into picture. At this situation,
2

primary winding will also draw equivalent full load current from source. The voltage drop in
the secondary is I Z where Z is the secondary impedance of transformer.
2 2 2

Now if at this loading condition, any one measures the voltage between secondary terminals,
he or she will get voltage V across load terminals which is obviously less than no load
2

secondary voltage E and this is because of I Z voltage drop in the transformer.

2 2 2

Expression of Voltage Regulation of Transformer

The equation for the voltage regulation of transformer, represented in percentage, is
− 2− 2
VOLTAGE REGULATION(%) = X 100% = X 100%
2

Transformer “No-load” Condition

When the transformer is operating at no load, the secondary winding is open-circuited, which means there is no load
on the secondary side of the transformer and, therefore, current in the secondary will be zero. While primary winding
carries a small current I0 called no-load current which is 2 to 10% of the rated current.
This current is responsible for supplying the iron losses (hysteresis and eddy current losses) in the core and a very
small amount of copper losses in the primary winding. The angle of lag depends upon the losses in the transformer.
The power factor is very low and varies from 0.1 to 0.15.
The no-load current consists of two components:
• Reactive or magnetizing component Im
(It is in quadrature with the applied voltage V1. It produces flux in the core and does not consume any power).
• Active or power component Iw, also know as a working component
(It is in phase with the applied voltage V1. It supplies the iron losses and a small amount of primary copper loss).

27
 12-10-2023

The following steps are given below to draw the phasor diagram:
• The function of the magnetizing component is to produce the magnetizing flux, and thus, it will be in phase
with the flux.
• Induced emf in the primary and the secondary winding lags the flux ϕ by 90 degrees.
• The primary copper loss is neglected, and secondary current losses are zero as I2 = 0.
Therefore, the current I0 lags behind the voltage vector V1 by an angle ϕ0 called the no-load power factor angle
and is shown in the phasor diagram.
• The applied voltage V1 is drawn equal and opposite to the induced emf E1 because the difference between the
two, at no load, is negligible.
• Active component Iw is drawn in phase with the applied voltage V1.
• The phasor sum of magnetizing current Im and the working current Iw gives the no-load current I0.

Transformer “On-load”
When the transformer is on the loaded condition, the secondary of the transformer is connected to load. The
load can be resistive, inductive or capacitive. The current I2 flows through the secondary winding of the
transformer. The magnitude of the secondary current depends on the terminal voltage V2 and the load
impedance. The phase angle between the secondary current and voltage depends on the nature of the load

28
 12-10-2023

When the load is connected to the secondary of the transformer, I2 current flows through their secondary
winding. The secondary current induces the mmf N2I2 on the secondary winding of the transformer. This
force set up the flux φ2 in the transformer core. The flux φ2 opposes the flux φ, according to Lenz’s Law.
As the flux φ2 opposes the flux φ, the resultant flux of the transformer decreases and this flux reduces the
induced EMF E1. Thus, the strength of the V1 is more than E1 and an additional primary current I’1 drawn
from the main supply. The additional current is used for restoring the original value of the flux in the core of
the transformer so that V1 = E1. The primary current I’1 is in phase opposition with the secondary current I2.
Thus, it is called the primary counter-balancing current.
The additional current I’1 induces the mmf N1I’1. And this force set up the flux φ’1. The direction of the flux
is the same as that of the φ and it cancels the flux φ2 which induces because of the MMF N2I2
Now, N1I1’= N2I2
Therefore, 1′ = ( 2 ) 2 = 2
1
The phase difference between V1 and I1 gives the power factor angle ϕ1 of the primary side of the transformer.
The power factor of the secondary side depends upon the type of load connected to the transformer.
If the load is inductive, the power factor will be lagging, and if the load is capacitive, the power factor will be
leading. The total primary current I1 is the vector sum of the currents I0 and I1’.
′
1 = 0+ 1

difference between mmf and emf

When there is a current flow through the conductor coil, a force is produced to drive the magnetic flux or magnetic field
lines. This force is called MMF or magnetomotive force. The EMF or electromotive force is the force responsible for
the flow of electrons or current in a closed circuit.

Phasor Diagram of Transformer on Inductive Load

Steps to draw the phasor diagram
•Take flux ϕ, a reference
•Induces emf E1 and E2 lags the flux by 90 degrees.
•The component of the applied voltage to the primary equal and opposite to induced emf in the primary winding. E1 is
represented by V1’.
•Current I0 lags the voltage V1’ by SOME degrees.
•The power factor of the load is lagging. Therefore current I2 is drawn lagging E2 by an angle ϕ2.
•The resistance and the leakage reactance of the windings result in a voltage drop, and hence secondary terminal
voltage V2 is the phase difference of E2 and voltage drop.
V2 = E2 – voltage drops
I2 R2 is in phase with I2 and I2X2 is in quadrature with I2.
•The total current flowing in the primary winding is the phasor sum of I1’and I0.
•Primary applied voltage V1 is the phasor sum of V1’ and the voltage drop in the primary winding.
•Current I1’is drawn equal and opposite to the current I 2
V1 = V1’ + voltage drop
I1R1 is in phase with I1 and I1XI is in quadrature with I1.
•The phasor difference between V1 and I1 gives the power factor angle ϕ1 of the primary side of the transformer.
•The power factor of the secondary side depends upon the type of load connected to the transformer.
•If the load is inductive as shown in the phasor diagram, the power factor will be lagging, and if the load is capacitive,
the power factor will be leading. Where I1R1 is the resistive drop in the primary windings
I2X2 is the reactive drop in the secondary winding

29
 12-10-2023

The phasor diagram of the actual transformer when it is loaded inductively is shown below:

Phasor Diagram of the Transformer on Capacitive Load

Steps to draw the phasor diagram at capacitive load

•Take flux ϕ a reference
•Induces emf E1 and E2 lags the flux by 90 degrees.
•The component of the applied voltage to the primary equal and opposite to induced emf in the primary
winding. E1 is represented by V1’.
•Current I0 lags the voltage V1’ by SOME degrees.
•The power factor of the load is leading. Therefore current I2 is drawn leading E2
•The resistance and the leakage reactance of the windings result in a voltage drop, and hence secondary terminal
voltage V2 is the phasor difference of E2 and voltage drop.
V2 = E2 – voltage drops
I2 R2 is in phase with I2 and I2X2 is in quadrature with I2.
•Current I1’is drawn equal and opposite to the current I2
•The total current I1 flowing in the primary winding is the phasor sum of I1’and I0.
•Primary applied voltage V1 is the phasor sum of V1’ and the voltage drop in the primary winding.
V1 = V1’ + voltage drop
I1R1 is in phase with I1 and I1XI is in quadrature with I1.
•The phasor difference between V1 and I1 gives the power factor angle ϕ1 of the primary side of the transformer.
•The power factor of the secondary side depends upon the type of load connected to the transformer.

30
 12-10-2023

The Transformer on the Capacitive load (leading power factor load) is shown below in the
phasor diagram.

Parallel Operation of a Transformer

The Transformer is said to be in Parallel Operation when its primary winding is connected to a common voltage supply, and
the secondary winding is connected to a common load.
The connection diagram of the parallel operation of a transformer is shown in the figure below.

The parallel operation of a transformer has some advantages likes it increases the efficiency of the system, makes the system
more flexible and reliable. But it increases the short-circuit current of the transformers.

31
 12-10-2023

Why Parallel Operation of Transformers is required?

It is economical to install numbers of smaller rated transformers in parallel than installing a bigger rated
electrical power transformers.
This has mainly the following advantages,
1. To maximize electrical power system efficiency:
Generally electrical power transformer gives the maximum efficiency at full load. If we run numbers
of transformers in parallel, we can switch on only those transformers which will give the total demand by
running nearer to its full load rating for that time. When load increases, we can switch none by one
other transformer connected in parallel to fulfil the total demand. In this way we can run the system with
maximum efficiency.
2. To maximize electrical power system availability:
If numbers of transformers run in parallel, we can shutdown any one of them for maintenance purpose.
Other parallel transformers in system will serve the load without total interruption of power.
3. To maximize power system reliability:
If any one of the transformers run in parallel, is tripped due to fault of other parallel transformers is the system
will share the load, hence power supply may not be interrupted if the shared loads do not make other
transformers over loaded.

4. To maximize electrical power system flexibility:

There is always a chance of increasing or decreasing future demand of power system. If
it is predicted that power demand will be increased in future, there must be a provision of
connecting transformers in system in parallel to fulfill the extra demand because, it is not
economical from business point of view to install a bigger rated single transformer by
forecasting the increased future demand as it is unnecessary investment of money. Again
if future demand is decreased, transformers running in parallel can be removed from
system to balance the capital investment and its return

Conditions for Parallel Operation of Transformers

When two or more transformers run in parallel, they must satisfy the following
conditions for satisfactory performance. These are the conditions for parallel operation
of transformers.
1.Same voltage ratio of transformer
2.Same percentage impedance.
3.Same polarity.
4.Same phase sequence.

32
 12-10-2023

POWER FACTOR
inductor and capacitor offer a certain amount of impedance given by:
1
=2 =
2
The inductor stores electrical energy in the form of magnetic energy and capacitor stores electrical energy in the
form of electrostatic energy. Neither of them dissipates it. Further, there is a phase shift between voltage and current.
Hence when we consider the entire circuit consisting of a resistor, inductor, and capacitor, there exists some phase
difference between the source voltage and current.
The cosine of this phase difference is called electrical power factor. This factor (0 < cosφ < 1 ) represents the
fraction of the total power that is used to do the useful work. The other fraction of electrical power is stored in the
form of magnetic energy or electrostatic energy in the inductor and capacitor respectively.
The total power in this case is:
Total electrical power = voltage across the element X current through the element
This is called apparent power and its unit is VA(VoltAmp) and denoted by ‘S’. S= VI
A fraction of this total electrical power which does our useful work is called active power. We denote it as ‘P’.
P = Active power = Total electrical power.cosφ and its unit is watt = VIcosφ
The other fraction of power is called reactive power. Reactive power does no useful work, but it is required for the
active work to be done. We denote it with ‘Q’ and mathematically is given by:
Q = Reactive power = Total electrical power.sinφ and its unit is VAR (Volt Amp Reactive). Q= VI sinφ This reactive
power oscillates between source and load.

To help understand this better all these power are represented in the form of a triangle.

Power Factor Triangle

Mathematically, S2 = P2 + Q2 and electrical power factor is active power / apparent

power.
S= VI
P=VIcosφ
Q= VI sinφ

33
 12-10-2023

Excitation in transformer
a transformer gets over-excitation due to over voltage or under frequency.
In this scenario, excitation current increases sharply an the transformer will
tend to become overheated due to increased excitation current, hysteresis
losses, and eddy currents.

Switching Transients In Transformer

Current chop before current zero causes voltage spikes (known as switching
transients) can damage loads like electric motors or dry type transformers.
Over-voltages from switching transients may result in insulation
degradation. Over time, this can lead to flashovers or insulation breakdown

AUTO TRANSFORMER

34
 12-10-2023

What is an Autotransformer?

An Auto Transformer is a transformer with only one

winding wound on a laminated core. An auto transformer is
similar to a two winding transformer but differ in the way the
primary and secondary winding are interrelated. A part of the
winding is common to both primary and secondary sides.
On load condition, a part of the load current is obtained
directly from the supply and the remaining part is obtained by
transformer action. An Auto transformer works as a voltage
regulator.

Explanation of Auto Transformer with Circuit Diagram

In an ordinary transformer, the primary and the secondary windings are electrically
insulated from each other but connected magnetically as shown in the figure
below. While in auto transformer the primary and the secondary windings are
connected magnetically as well as electrically. In fact, a part of the single
continuous winding is common to both primary and secondary.

35
 12-10-2023

There are two types of auto transformer based on the construction. In one type of
transformer, there is continuous winding with the taps brought out at convenient points
determined by the desired secondary voltage. However, in another type of auto
transformer, there are two or more distinct coils which are electrically connected to form
a continuous winding. The construction of Auto transformer is shown in the figure
below.

The primary winding AB from which a

tapping at C is taken, such that CB acts as a
secondary winding. The supply voltage is applied
across AB, and the load is connected across CB. The
tapping may be fixed or variable. When an AC
voltage V1 is applied across AB, an alternating flux is
set up in the core, as a result, an emf E1 is induced in
the winding AB. A part of this induced emf is taken in
the secondary circuit.

Let,
• V1 – primary applied voltage
• V2 – secondary voltage across the load
• I1 – primary current
• I2 – load current
• N1 – number of turns between A and B
• N2 – number of turns between C and B

Neglecting no-load current, leakage reactance and losses,

V1 = E1 and V2 = E2
Therefore, the transformation ratio:

36
 12-10-2023

As the secondary ampere-turns are opposite to primary ampere-turns, so the current

I2 is in phase opposition to I1. The secondary voltage is less than the primary. Therefore
current I2 is more than the current I1. Therefore, the resulting current flowing through
section BC is (I2 – I1).

The ampere-turns due to section BC = current X turns

Equation (1) and (2) shows that the ampere-turns due to section BC and AC balance
each other which is characteristic of the transformer action.

Advantages of Auto transformer

• Less costly
• Better regulation
• Low losses as compared to ordinary two winding transformer of the same rating.

Disadvantages of Auto transformer

There are various advantages of the auto transformer, but then also one major
disadvantage, why auto transformer is not widely used, is that
• The secondary winding is not insulated from the primary winding.
If an auto transformer is used to supply low voltage from a high voltage and there is a break in
the secondary winding, the full primary voltage comes across the secondary terminal which is
dangerous to the operator and the equipment. So the auto transformer should not be used for
interconnecting high voltage and low voltage systems.
• Used only in the limited places where a slight variation of the output voltage from input voltage
is required.

37
 12-10-2023

Applications of Auto transformer

• It is used as a starter to give up to 50 to 60% of full voltage to the stator of a
squirrel cage induction motor during starting.
• It is used to give a small boost to a distribution cable, to correct the voltage
drop.
• It is also used as a voltage regulator
• Used in power transmission and distribution system and also in the audio
system and railways.

Variable Frequency Transformer

Variable Frequency Transformer
A variable frequency transformer (VFT) is a power transfer device used to
exchange power between two grids operating at different frequencies. Conventional VFTs
are rotational machines working on the principle of induction.

working
The VFT system is based on a combination of hydro generator and transformer
technologies. It consists of a rotary transformer for continuously controllable phase shift,
together with a drive system and control that adjust the angle and speed of the rotary
transformer to regulate the power flow through the VFT.

Principle
A variable transformer is a transformer that allows for fine adjustments to the
output voltage. A typical variable transformer can be adjusted from 0% to about 117% of
the input voltage. A variable transformer usually consists of a wiper or brush that can be
rotated across the windings to create a variable turns ratio.

38
 12-10-2023

Function
VFTs provide the technical feasibility to flow power in both directions
between two grids, permitting power exchanges that were previously impossible.
Energy in a grid with lower costs can be transmitted to a grid with higher costs
(higher demand), with energy trading. Power capacity is sold by providers.

Application
Coupling of load to the source so as to maximize power delivered to the
load. This application exploits the impedance transforming property of the
transformer. Under condition of impedance matching the over-all efficiency of the
system is as low as 50%.

Current Transformer
A current transformer is a device which is used for the transformation of current at a
higher value to a lower value with respect to the earth potential. It is used with the AC
instruments for measuring the high value of current.

The line current is too high, and it is very difficult to measure them directly. Thus, the
current transformer is used which decrease the high value of current into a fractional value which
is easy to measure by the instrument.
The primary of the current transformer is connected directly to the line whose value is to
measure. The secondary of the current transformer is connected to the ammeter.

39
 12-10-2023

Potential Transformer
A voltage transformer is the type of instrument transformer which is used for the
transformation of the voltage from a higher value to a lower value.

The primary terminal of the potential transformer is connected to the line for
measuring the line voltage. The potential transformer reduced the high value of
voltage into the small value which can easily be measured by the voltmeter.

Basis for Comparison Current Transformer Potential Transformer

Definition Transform the current from Transform the voltage from
high value to the low value. high value to the low value.
Circuit Symbol

Core Usually built up with It is made up of with high

lamination of silicon steel. quality steel operating at low
flux densities
Primary Winding It carries the current which is It carries the voltage which is
to be measured to be measured.
Secondary Winding It is connected to the It is connected to the
ammeter or instrument. Voltmeter or instrument.

40
 12-10-2023

Connection Connected in series Connected in parallel

with the instrument with the instrument.
Primary Circuit Has a small number of Has a large number of
turns turns
Secondary Circuit Has a large number of Has a small number of
turns and cannot be turns and can be open
open circuit. circuit.
Range 5A or 1A 110v
Transformation Ratio High Low
Burden Does not depends on Depends on the
secondary burden secondary burden
Input Constant current Constant Voltage

Full line The primary winding The primary winding

consists the full line current. consists the full line voltage.

Types Two types (Wound and Two types (Electromagnetic

Closed Core) and Capacitor voltage)

Impedance Low High

Applications Measuring current and Measurement, power source,

power, monitoring the operating protective relay,
power grid operation, for
operating protective relay,

41
 12-10-2023

Welding Transformer

Welding Transformers are used in AC

machines to change alternating current
from the power line into a low-voltage,
high amperage current in the secondary
winding.

Construction of welding transformer:

1. Welding transformer is a step down transformer.
2. It has a magnetic core with primary winding which is thin and has large
number of turns.
3. A secondary winding with less number of turns and high cross-sectional area.
4. Due to this type of windings in primary and secondary it behaves as step down
transformer.
5. So we get less voltage and high current from the secondary winding output.
This is the construction of ac welding transformer.
6. A dc welding transformer also has same type of winding the only difference is
that we connect a rectifier(which converts ac to dc) at the secondary to get dc
output.
7. We also connect a inductor or filter to smooth the dc current. This will
be construction of dc welding transformer.

42
 12-10-2023

DC welding
transformer

AC welding
transformer

Working of welding transformer:

1. As it is a step down transformer we have less voltage at secondary which is

nearly 15 to 45 volts and has high current values which is nearly 200 A to
600 A it can also be higher than this value.
2. For adjusting the voltage on secondary side there are tapping's on secondary
winding by this we can get required amount of secondary current for
welding.
3. These tappings are connected to several high current switches.
4. Now one end of secondary winding is connected to the welding electrode
and the other end is connected to the welding pieces.
5. When a high current flows a large amount of I2R heat is produced due to
contact resistance between welding pieces and electrode.
6. Because of this high heat the tip of electrode melts and fills the gap between
the welding pieces.

43
 12-10-2023

Three-Phase Transformer
A three phase transformer is used to transfer a large amount of power. The
three phase transformer is required to step-up and step-down the voltages at various
stages of a power system network.
The three phase transformer is constructed in two ways.
1. Three separate single phase transformer is suitably connected for three phase
operation.
2. A single three-phase transformer in which the cores and windings for all the
three phases are merged into a single structure.
The three single-phase transformer can be used as a three-phase transformer
when their primary and secondary winding are connected to each other. The three
phase transformer supply has many advantages as compared to three single phase
units like it requires very less space and also very lighter smaller and cheaper in
size. The three phase transformer is mainly classified into two types, i.e., the core
type transformer and the shell type transformer.

44
 12-10-2023

Core Type Three Phase Transformer

Consider a three single phase core type transformer positioned at 120° to
each other as shown in the figure below. If the balanced three-phase sinusoidal
voltages are applied to the windings, the fluxes φa, φb and φc will also be sinusoidal
and balanced.
If the three legs carrying these fluxes are combined, the total flux in the
merged leg becomes zero. This leg can, therefore, be removed because it carries the
no flux. This structure is not convenient for the core.

The core of the three phase transformer is usually made up of three limbs in the same
plane. This can be built using stack lamination. The each leg of this core carries the low voltage
and high voltage winding. The low voltage windings are insulated from the core than the high
voltage windings.

The low voltage windings are placed next to the core with suitable insulation between the
core and the low voltage windings. The high voltage windings are placed over the low voltage
windings with suitable insulation between them. The magnetic paths of the leg a and c are greater
than that of leg b, the construction is not symmetrical, and there is a resultant imbalance in the
magnetising current.

45
 12-10-2023

Shell type Three Phase Transformer

The shell type 3-phase transformer can be
constructed by stacking three single phase shell
transformer as shown in the figure.
The winding direction of the central unit b is made
opposite to that of units a and c. If the system is balanced
with phase sequence a-b-c, the flux will also be balanced.
The magnitude of this combined flux is equal to the
magnitude of each of its components. The cross section
area of the combined yoke is same as that of the outer leg
and top and bottom section of the yoke. The imbalance in
the magnetic path has very little effect on the performance
of the three shell-type transformers. The windings of the
shell type three phase transformer are either connected in
delta or star as desired.

Star and Delta Connection

In a three-phase circuit, there are two types of connections. One is known as Star
Connection, and the other one is Delta Connection. A star connection has a common or a star
point to which all the three terminals are connected forming a star shape as shown below:

In delta connection, all the three terminals are connected together forming a closed loop.
In this, there is no common or neutral point, and it is used for power transmission for short
distances. The connection diagram is shown below:

46
 12-10-2023

BASIS STAR CONNECTION DELTA CONNECTION

Basic Definition The terminals of the three The three branches of the network are
branches are connected to a connected in such a way that it forms a
common point. The network closed loop known as Delta Connection.
formed is known as Star
Connection.
Connection of The starting and the finishing The end of each coil is connected to the
terminals point that is the similar ends of starting point of the other coil that means
the three coils are connected the opposite terminals of the coils are
together. connected together.
Neutral point Neutral or the star point exists in Neutral point does not exist in the delta
the star connection. connection.
Relation between line Line current is equal to the Line current is equal to root three times
and phase current Phase current. [] of the Phase Current.
Relation between line Line voltage is equal to root Line voltage is equal to the Phase
and phase voltage three times of the Phase Voltage voltage.

Speed The Speed of the star The Speed of the delta

connected motors is slow as connected motors is high
they receive 1/√3 of the because each phase gets the
voltage. total of the line voltage.
Insulation level Insulation required is low. High insulation is required.
Network Type Mainly used in the Power Used in the Power
Distribution networks. Transmission networks.
Received voltage In Star Connection each In delta connection each
winding receive 230 volts winding receives 414 volts.
Type of system Both three phase four wire and Three phase three wire
three phase three wire system system can be derived from
can be derived in star the Delta connection.
connection.

47
 12-10-2023

Three-Phase Transformer Connections

The three phase transformer consists three transformers either separate or combined
with one core. The primary and secondary of the transformer can be independently
connected either in star or delta. There are four possible connections for a 3-phase
transformer bank.
1. Δ – Δ (Delta – Delta) Connection [Dd0 and Dd6]
2. Υ – Υ (Star – Star) Connection [Yy0 and Yy6]
3. Δ – Υ (Delta – Star) Connection [Dy1 and Dy11]
4. Υ – Δ (Star – Delta ) Connection [Yd1 and Yd11]

The choice of connection of three phase transformer depends on the various

factors likes the availability of a neutral connection for grounding protection or load
connections, insulation to ground and voltage stress, availability of a path for the
flow of third harmonics, etc. The various types of connections are explained below
in details.

48
12-10-2023

49
12-10-2023

50
12-10-2023

51
12-10-2023

52
 12-10-2023

53
12-10-2023

54
12-10-2023

55
12-10-2023

56
12-10-2023

57
12-10-2023

58
12-10-2023

59
 12-10-2023

Utilization factor of open delta without causing

overloading of transformer is 0.866

60
12-10-2023

61
12-10-2023

62
 12-10-2023

The following assumptions have been made while deriving following relationships
•Primary line voltage: V
•Primary Line current : I
•Phase transformation ratio:

•Loads are balanced and have unity power factor.

•Transformers are Ideal with no losses

Cooling of Transformer and Methods of Cooling

Cooling of Transformer is the process by which heat generated in the
transformer is dissipated or treated to the safe value. This is achieved by various
cooling methods of transformer available.
The major factor for the generation of heat in the transformer is the various
losses like hysteresis, eddy current, iron, and copper loss. Among all the various
losses the major contributor of the heat generation is the copper loss or I2R loss.
If the temperature of the transformer will continue to increase rapidly, it will
result in the degradation of the insulation used in the transformer resulting in the
damaging of the various parts and hence the failure of the transformer. Thus, proper
removal or treatment of heat is necessary for the efficient working, longer life and
higher efficiency of the transformer.
The various coolants used for the cooling purpose of the transformer are air,
synthetic oils, mineral oils, gas, water.

63
 12-10-2023

Basically, there are two types of transformer one is the dry type, and another one
is oil-immersed type. For the cooling of transformers, the following cooling
methods listed below are used.
1. Air Natural
2. Air Blast or forced
3. Oil Natural Air Natural
4. Oil Natural Air Forced
5. Oil Forced Air Forced
6. Oil Natural Water Forced
7. Oil Forced Water Forced

Methods of Cooling of Transformer

Dry Type Transformer is cooled by the following two methods given below:

Air Natural (AN)

By Air Natural method the generated heat in the transformer is cooled by the
circulation of natural air. When the temperature of the transformer becomes higher as
compared to the temperature of the surrounding air, thus by the process of natural
convection, heated air is replaced by the cool air. This method is also known as a self-
cooled method. This method is used for cooling the smaller output transformer rating that
is up to 1.5 MVA.

Air Forced (AF) or Air Blast

In this method, the heat generated is cooled by the forced air circulation method.
With the help of fans and blowers, high velocity of air is forced on the core and the
windings of the transformer. As the temperature inside the transformer goes beyond the
standard safe level, an alarm is activated, and the fans and blowers are switched ON
automatically. This method is used for transformer rating up to 15MVA.

64
 12-10-2023

Oil-immersed type transformer is cooled by the oil-air cooling method and oil-
water cooling method.

Oil Natural Air Natural (ONAN)

Natural convection process is used for this
type of cooling. The assembly of the core and
windings are placed in the oil-immersed tank. As the
core and the windings heat up the temperature of the
oil in the transformer rises. As a result, the oil
moves upward and flows from the upper portion of
the transformer tank. This hot oil dissipates heat in
the air by natural convection and conduction
process, the oil gets cooled by the circulation of
natural air and passes through the radiator again for
the use of the transformer. This type of cooling is
used for the transformer rating up to 30 MVA.

Oil Natural Air Forced (ONAF)

ONAF method is used for the cooling of the
transformer of rating up to 60 MVA. As discussed
above that in ONAN method, the dissipation of heat is
taking place by the convection process in which air is
naturally circulated to cool down, but in this type, the
forced air is used for the purpose of cooling the
transformer.
The cooling of oil will be faster if the area of the
tank of the transformer is increased finally, which result
in the increase in heat dissipation level. As the fans and
blowers are installed, a high velocity of air is forcefully
applied to the radiator and cooling towers which will
help in cooling oil more quickly and efficiently.
Its cost is higher as compared to another process
where the circulation of oil and air is done naturally because
a fan and blowers are attached as extra cooling equipment,
in this method.

65
 12-10-2023

Oil Forced Air Forced (OFAF)

As the name itself says that both the oil and the air are applied by force for cooling of a
transformer. The Heat Exchanger is installed through which hot oil is circulated with the help of a
pump. Air is forced to pass on the heat exchanger with the help of high-speed fans.
This method is similar to ONAN, as when there is low load on the transformer the cooling is
done by a simple ONAN method. However, as soon as the load is increased, the generated heat
will also be more and therefore the sensor gives an alarm that the dissipation of heat has
exceeded the safe value and as a result, the fans and pumps are switched on
automatically. Thus, the cooling takes place by OFAF method.

Oil Natural Water Forced (ONWF)

In Oil Natural Water Force cooling method, the transformer core and
the windings are immersed in the oil tank. A radiator is installed outside
the tank, as the temperature rises and the oil heats up and moves
upward, the heat is dissipated by the natural process of convection and
oil is passed through the radiator, but the water is pumped and passed
through the heat exchanger for cooling of the oil.

66
 12-10-2023

Oil Forced Water Forced (OFWF)

A heat exchanger is installed through which both oil and water are passed with the help of a pump. The
level and pressure of the oil are always kept higher than that of water so that if any leakage occurs in
the system the oil mixes with the water, but water does not get mixed up with the oil.
This type of method is suitable for large capacity of the transformer having rating as several hundred
MVA or where banks of transformers are installed. Mainly this type of cooling is done for the
transformer installed at the hydropower plant.

Three-winding Transformer
Definition: Sometimes in high rating transformer, the
third winding is constructed in addition to the primary and
the secondary windings. The third winding is called the
tertiary winding, and because of the three windings, the
transformer is called the three winding transformer.

The voltage ratings of all the three windings of the

transformer are usually unequal. The primary winding has
the highest voltage rating; the tertiary has the lowest voltage
rating, and the secondary has the intermediate voltage rating.

The chief advantages of the three winding transformers is an

economy of construction and their great efficiency. The
schematic diagram of a three-phase transformer is shown in
the figure.

67
 12-10-2023

For an ideal transformer,

The most significant advantage of the third winding is are that the harmonic generated by the
primary and secondary winding extinguish by the third winding. The third winding is connected in delta.
The voltage of the tertiary winding differs than the primary and secondary winding. Thus, it is used for
supplying the power to the auxiliary appliances like the fan, tube light, etc. of the substations. The
tertiary winding is used for following applications.
• The reactive power is supplied to the substations with the help of the tertiary winding.
• The tertiary winding reduces the impedance of the circuit so that the fault current easily passes to the
ground.
• It is used for testing the high rating transformer.

Equivalent Circuit of a Three Winding Transformer

The equivalent circuit diagram of the three-phase transformer is shown in the
figure. Consider the R1, R2 and R3 are the resistance and the X1, X2 and X3 are the
impedance of their windings.
The V1, V2, V3 are the voltages and the I1, I2, I3 are current flows through their
windings.

68
 12-10-2023

On-Load Tap-Changing Transformer

Definition: The transformer which is not disconnected from the main supply when
the tap setting is to be changed such type of transformer in known as on-load tap
changing transformer.
The tap setting arrangement is mainly used for changing the turn ratio of the
transformer to regulate the system voltage while the transformer is delivering the
load. The main feature of an on-load tap changer is that during its operation the
main circuit of the switch should not be opened. Thus, no part of the switch should
get the short circuit.
In tap changing transformer different types of an impedance circuit are used
for limiting the current during the operation of a tap changing. The impedance
circuit may be resistor or reactor type, and by the impedance circuit, the tap
changer can be classified as the resistor and reactor type. Nowadays the current
limiting is carried out by using a pair of resistors.

Location of Tapping
The tapping is provided at the HV winding of the transformer because the high
voltage winding is wound on the low-voltage winding. Also, the current in the HV
winding of the transformer is smaller due to which small contacts and leads are
required for tapping connections.
The tapping on the windings is taken out through the house board to separate
the oil-filled compartment in which the on-load tap changer switch is housed. The
tap changer is operated by a motor operated driving mechanism of local or remote
control. The handle is operated for manual operation in case of an emergency.

Needs For Tapping

Frequently change in load changes the voltage of the system. The tap
changing in the power transformer is mainly done for keeping the output voltage
within the prescribed limit. Nowadays almost all the large power transformer is
provided with on-load tap changer.

69
 12-10-2023

TRANSFORMER TESTS
Type of Transformer Testing

Tests done at factory

1. Type tests
2. Routine tests
3. Special tests

Tests done at site

1. Pre-commissioning tests
2. Periodic/condition monitoring tests
3. Emergency tests

Type Test of Transformer

To prove that the transformer meets customer’s specifications and design
expectations, the transformer has to go through different testing procedures in
manufacturer premises. Some transformer tests are carried out for confirming the
basic design expectation of that transformer. These tests are done mainly in a
prototype unit not in all manufactured units in a lot. Type test of transformer
confirms main and basic design criteria of a production lot.

Routine Tests of Transformer

Routine tests of transformer is mainly for confirming the operational performance

of the individual unit in a production lot. Routine tests are carried out on every unit
manufactured.

70
 12-10-2023

Special Tests of Transformer

Special tests of transformer is done as per customer requirement to obtain

information useful to the user during operation or maintenance of the
transformer.

Pre Commissioning Test of Transformer

In addition to these, the transformer also goes through some other tests,
performed on it, before actual commissioning of the transformer at the site.
The transformer testing performed before commissioning the transformer at the
site is called the pre-commissioning test of transformer. These tests are done to
assess the condition of transformer after installation and compare the test results
of all the low voltage tests with the factory test reports.

Type tests of transformer include:

1. Winding resistance test of transformer

2. Transformer ratio test
3. Transformer vector group test
4. Measurement of impedance voltage/short circuit impedance (principal tap)
and load loss (Short circuit test)
5. Measurement of no-load loss and current (Open circuit test
6. Measurement of insulation resistance
7. Dielectric tests of transformer
8. Temperature rise test of transformer
9. Tests on on-load tap-changer
10.Vacuum tests on tank and radiators

71
 12-10-2023

Routine tests of transformer include

1. Winding resistance test of transformer

2. Transformer ratio test
3. Transformer vector group test
4. Measurement of impedance voltage/short circuit impedance (principal tap) and
load loss (Short circuit test)
5. Measurement of no load loss and current (Open circuit test)
6. Measurement of insulation resistance
7. Dielectric tests of transformer.
8. Tests on on-load tap-changer.
9. Oil pressure test on transformer to check against leakages past joints and gaskets

That means Routine tests of transformer include all the type tests except
temperature rise and vacuum tests. The oil pressure test on transformer to check
against leakages past joints and gaskets is included.

Special Tests of transformer include

1. Dielectric tests.
2. Measurement of zero-sequence impedance of three-phase
transformers
3. Short-circuit test
4. Measurement of acoustic noise level
5. Measurement of the harmonics of the no-load current.
6. Measurement of the power taken by the fans and oil pumps.
7. Tests on bought out components / accessories such as buchhloz relay,
temperature indicators, pressure relief devices, oil preservation
system etc.

72