Vectors and dimensional analysis

Summary
Dimensional analysis.................................................................................................................................2
Physical magnitude................................................................................................................................2
How can we measure a physical magnitude?...................................................................................2
The international system. Magnitudes and units..............................................................................3
Multiples and submultiples...............................................................................................................4
Dimensional Equations and Formulas of Physical Quantities..........................................................4
Vaschy–Buckingham π Theorem...........................................................................................................7
π monomials.....................................................................................................................................7
Vaschy–Buckingham π Theorem......................................................................................................8
Example: How to use the Vaschy-Buckingham Pi-Theorem...........................................................9
Do aerodynamics change with scale?.............................................................................................15
Scalar and vector magnitudes...................................................................................................................16
Vector...................................................................................................................................................16
Sliding vectors.....................................................................................................................................20
Moment of a vector (torque of a vector).........................................................................................20
Sliding Vector Systems (SVS)........................................................................................................23
Concurrent Sliding Vector System. Varignon’s theorem................................................................25
Couple.............................................................................................................................................25
Parallel Sliding Vector System. Varignon theorem.........................................................................26
References................................................................................................................................................28

1
Dimensional analysis
Physical magnitude
A physical magnitude is a property of the material that we can measure. For example:

• Can we measure the mass of a coin? Yes, we can. So the mass of a coin is a physical magnitude
or magnitude.

• Can we measure the volume of a coin? Yes, we can. So the volume of a coin is a physical
magnitude or magnitude.

We measure mass
with a scale We measure volume
(weighing scale) with a test-tube

• Knowledge isn’t a magnitude. We can’t measure it with an instrument or with a machine.

However you have to pass many exams every year that try to measure you knowledge or skill in
a subject, although this are not measure instruments from the physical point of view.

How can we measure a physical magnitude?

A unit of measurement is a definite magnitude of a quantity, defined and adopted by convention or by
law, that is used as a standard for measurement of the same kind of quantity. Any other quantity of that
kind can be expressed as a multiple of the unit of measurement. For example, a length is a physical
quantity. The meter is a unit of length that represents a definite predetermined length. When we say 10
meters (or 10 m), we actually mean 10 times the definite predetermined length called "meter", and well
know according to its definition. Measurement is a process of determining how large or small a
physical quantity is as compared to a basic reference quantity (unit) of the same kind.

Typically, we can measure a physical magnitude with an instrument of measure. And we must express a
magnitude with a number or quantity and a unit.
Magnitude = quantity  unit

For example, a car is running at 120 km/h. We express it like:

v = 120 km/h

Speed (magnitude) Unit

Number or quantity

2
Remember: You always must express the magnitude like a number followed by a unit. Put the unit!
Don’t forget it!

The international system. Magnitudes and units

All the magnitudes and their units are gathered in a common set called the International System. The
name of this system can be shortened or abbreviated to SI, from the French name Système International
d'unités.

Scientists choose an arbitrary number of magnitudes called fundamental magnitudes.

The seven fundamental magnitudes of the International System are:

Unit name Unit symbol Symbol for dimension Quantity name
second s T Time
meter m L Length
kilogram kg M Mass1
ampere A I Electric current
kelvin K Θ Thermodynamic
temperature
mole mol N Amount of substance
candela cd J Luminous intensity

The rest of the magnitudes are called derivative magnitudes. Every derivative magnitude is defined
from fundamental magnitudes.

For example, the speed is the space divided by the time.

Longitud meter
speed= And unit of speed is
Time second

In many cases, non-international units are used. For instance, the speed can be expressed in kilometer
per hour.

In Spain, the SI has been established as the legal system of units according to “Real Decreto 493/2020,
de 28 de abril, por el que se modifica el Real Decreto 2032/2009, de 30 de diciembre, por el que se
establecen las unidades legales de medida.” («BOE» núm. 119, de 29 de abril de 2020, páginas 30649
a 30653).

1 kg is expressed always with lower case k. The upper case K is reserved for Kelvin.

3
Multiples and submultiples
Many times we have to express a magnitude with a very big number or a very small number. In this
case it’s necessary to use multiples and submultiples for the units.

Let’s remember the metric decimal system

Prefix (symbol) equivalent

Tera (T) 1012
Giga (G) 109
Mega (M) 106
Kilo (k) 103
Hecto (h) 102
Deca (da) 10

Deci (d) 10-1

Centi (c) 10-2
Mili (m) 10-3
Micro (m) 10-6
Nano (n) 10-9
Pico (p) 10-12

Dimensional Equations and Formulas of Physical Quantities

The dimension of a physical quantity is defined as the power to which the fundamental quantities are
raised to express the physical quantity. The dimensional formula is defined as the expression of the
physical quantity in terms of its basic unit with proper dimensions. For instance, he dimension of mass,
length and time are represented as [m] = M, [l] = L and [t] = T respectively. For the velocity, the
dimensional equation is:
[x] −1
[v ]= =LT
[t ]

Pay attention that in this dimensional equations, the magnitude between brackets are the dimensions of
the corresponding magnitude.

4
Dimension formula of a physical quantity can only be written when its relation with other physical
quantities is known. For instance, we can find the dimensions of the force by using the second
Newton’s law, that relates the force with other magnitudes (mass and acceleration):
⃗
F =m ⃗
a

so,
[m][ x ] −2
[ F]=[m][a]= 2
= MLT
[t ]

because the acceleration is the position over time squared.

Principle of dimensional homogeneity

Principle of dimensional homogeneity expresses the key requirements to a structure of any meaningful
algebraic and differential equations describing physical phenomena, namely: all terms of these
equations must to have the same dimensions. According to this principle, the dimensions of
fundamental quantities on left hand side of an equation must be equal to the dimensions of the
fundamental quantities on the right hand side of that equation. Let us consider three quantities A, B and
C such that C = A + B. Therefore, according to this principle, the dimensions of C are equal to the
dimensions of A and B, [C]=[A]+[B]. For example, for the equation of a uniform accelerated motion:
1 2
x= x0 +v t + a t
2

We can verify the homogeneity of all terms in this equation:

[ x ]= L
[ x 0 ]=L

[v t ]=[ v ][ t ]= LT −1 T = L
−1
[v t ]=[ v ][ t ]= LT T = L

Uses of Dimensional Equations

The dimensional equations have got the following uses:

1. To check the correctness of a physical relation.

2. To derive the relation between various physical quantities.

3. To convert value of physical quantity from one system of unit to another system.

4. To find the dimension of constants in a given relation.

5
Example: mathematical pendulum

Relevant parameters for the period of the pendulum T: Length, l; Mass, m; and Gravity, g
a b c
T =K m l g
where K is a dimensionless constant.

Period, T [T] = T

Mass, m [m] = M

Length, l [l] = L

Gravity, g [g] = LT⁻²

The equation must be homogeneous:

[T ]=[m]a [l ]b [ g ]c
a b −2 c
T=M L (LT )
a b c −2 c
T=M L L T
a=0
b+c=0
−2 c=1
c=−1/2 , b=1/ 2, a=0

T =K ma l b g c =K l 1/ 2 g−1 /2=K
√ l
g

6
Vaschy–Buckingham π Theorem2

π monomials
A magnitude is dimensionless when the exponents of its dimensional formula are equal to zero.
Example: the Sun/Earth mass ratio:
Msun/ME=1.9891×1030kg/5.9736×1024kg = 3.33×105 (number without units)

[ ]
M sun [ M sun ] M
ME
=
[ M E] M
= =1=M 0 L0 T 0

A group of monomials, π1, π2, … πn, are dimensionally independent when it is not possible to satisfy
the equation
π 1C π 2C ⋯ π nC =1
1 2 n

except by the trivial solution C1 = C2 ... = Cn = 0.

Example: π1=a, π2=b, and π3=a2/b, are not dimensionally independent:
C1 C2 C3
π 1 π 2 π 3 =1

a C b C (a2 /b)C =1
1 2 3

a C +2C bC −C =1
1 3 2 3

{C 1 +2 C 3=0
C 2−C 3 =0 }
The only solution for these two equations is C1 = C2 = C3 = 0.
For this simple example, it is very clear that π1, π2, π3, are dimensionally dependent, because π3=π12/π2 .

A group of monomials, π1, π2, … πn, are called π-monomials if the satisfied the following two
properties:
1. They are dimensionless magnitudes.
2. They are dimensionally independents.
It is necessary to satisfied both conditions to have a set of π-monomials. If one of then fails, the set is
not jet consider as a set of π-monomials.

2 The part marked in gray is complementary material that is not the subject of the exam.

7
Vaschy–Buckingham π Theorem
“If an equation in n arguments is dimensionally homogeneous with respect to h fundamental units, it
can be expressed as a relation between n – h independent dimensionless arguments”.

This is equivalent to the following two statements:

1) The most general form of all physical equations

f(x1..., xn) = 0,
It is
F(1, ... , i)=0

Where 1, ... , i are the dimensionless and dimensionally independent monomials (π-monomials) that
can be formed with the magnitudes given.

2) The number of these monomials is i = n – h, where h is the rank of the matrix formed with the
dimensional exponents converted into their basic units (dimensional matrix).

Since the equation given has to be satisfied for any system of basic units, each variable must be
combined with others to give a dimensionless monomial.

For the monomial

π =x a1 ⋯ x an
1 n
(1)
to be dimensionless, we should verify that:
[ π ]= L0 M 0 T 0=[ x 1 ]a ⋯ [ x n ]a
1 n

And writing the dimensional formulas of x1..., xn in relation to the LMT base (the demonstration could
easily be extended for any generic base {b1...bm})
[ x 1 ]=LC M C T C
11 21 31

[ x n ]=L C M C T C
1n 2n 3n

8
When substituted in (1), gives:
[ π ]=[ x 1 ]a ⋯[ x n ]a =( LC M C T C )a ⋯ (L C M C T C )a = L0 M 0 T 0
1 n 11 21 31 1 1n 2n 3n n

By which
a1 C 11 +⋯+a n C 1n =0
a 1 C 21 +⋯+a n C 2 n=0
a 1 C 31 +⋯+a n C 3 n=0

To know how many independent monomials will appear, we must find out which values can take a1...
an in (1), which can be deduced from the preceding equations. In fact, the number of linear independent
solutions (a1 ... an) is i = n – h, h being the rank of the matrix:

( )
C 11 ⋯ C 1 n
C 21 ⋯C 2 n
C 31 ⋯C 3 n

of the dimensional exponents.

Example: How to use the Vaschy-Buckingham Pi-Theorem

Use the Pi Theorem to derive a formula for lift. Lift is defined as the component of the surface force
in a fluid perpendicular to the oncoming flow.

1. You first need to write down all the dependent variables x1, x2,... , xn and their corresponding units
converted into basic units. In this example, the lift L depends on the variables V (mean velocity of the
object relative to the fluid), (fluid density), S (planform area), and μ (dynamic viscosity of the fluid).
As there are 5 variables n = 5. In the table below gives the basic units of these variables:
Variable L V  S μ
Basic Units MLT−2 LT−1 ML−3 L2 ML−1T−1

2. The number of  monomials is i = n – h, where h is the rank of the matrix formed with the
dimensional exponents converted into basic units (dimensional matrix). In this case, the dimensional
matrix is:
L V ρ S μ

( )
M 1 0 1 0 1
L 1 1 −3 2 −1
T − 2 −1 0 0 −1

whose rank is 3.

9
Note that h is always equal to the number of basics units involved in the x1, x2,... variables. In this case
we have three basic units (M, L and T), so h=3.
So we need i = n – h = 5 – 3 = 2 monomials.

3. Now we have to find the monomials.

a b c d e
π =L V ρ S μ
a b c d e
[ π ] =[ L ]a [ V ]b [ ρ ]c [ S ]d [ μ ]e =[ MLT −2 ] [ LT −1 ] [ ML−3 ] [ L2 ] [ ML− 1 T −1 ] = M 0 L0 T 0
a+c +e=0
a +b −3 c +2 d − e=0
−2 a − b − e=0
The number of linear independent solutions is h (h=2), the rank of the above dimensional matrix. There
are an infinite number of ways of solving the system. One is taking in the first place a=1 and e=0, and
then a=0 and e=1.
3.1. For the first monomial, we take a=1 and e=0.
1+c=0
1+b − 3 c +2 d =0
−2 − b=0
This gives b = –2, c = –1 and d = –1. Now we have found the first monomial:
L
π 1 =LV −2 ρ− 1 S −1 = 2
V ρS
3.2. For the second monomial, we take a=0 and e=1.
c +1=0
b −3 c+2 d −1=0
−b −1=0
so that b = –1, c = –1 and d = –1/2, so
μ
π2=
Vρ √ S

4. Once all the monomials have been written down, the relationship between the variables can be
written as: a=1
π 1 =f ( π 2 ,π 3, ... π n−h )

filling in the values of monomials obtained in previous steps. In this case:

10
 π 1 =f ( π 2 )

L
2
V ρS
=f
( )μ
Vρ √ S

L=V ρSf
( Vρμ√ S )
2

Use the Pi Theorem to derive a formula for the period of a pendulum.

1. Choose variables or parameters that you believe will affect the
experimental results:
Period, T [T] = T
Mass, m [m] = M
Length, l [l] = L
Gravity, g [g] = LT⁻²

2. Calculated the number of π terms that the physical relationship can be

reduced to:
a b c d
π=T m l g

[π ]=(T)a (M)b L c (LT−2 )d =M0 L 0 T0

a−2 d =0
b=0
c+ d =0

( )
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 1
1 0 0 −2

Rank = 3. The rank is the order of the largest nonzero square submatrix. The rank of A is the largest
order of any non-zero minor in A.
Number of independent solutions: (4-3)=1.
3. Form the π terms
a−2 d =0
d =1/ 2
b=0
c=−1/ 2
c+ d =0
So, the π-monomial is

11
 π=T l−1/2 g 1/ 2=T
√ g
l
According to the π-theorem, the relationship between the variables is given by
f (π)=0
For this relationship, we can take the simple function possible:

π= K ⇒ T =K
√ l
g

Use the Pi Theorem to derive a formula for the aerodynamic forces on a Bluff Body (a Sphere)
In aerodynamics, a bluff body is one which has a length in the flow direction close or equal to that
perpendicular to the flow direction. A circular cylinder and a sphere are paradigms often employed for
studying bluff body flows.

Relevant parameters:
Free-stream velocity, U
Diameter of the sphere, D
Density of the fluid, r
Viscosity of the fluid, m
Forces on the sphere:
Lift force FL
Drag force FD

The lift force is zero due to the symmetry of the system: the upward force is always to the downward
force (excluding gravity), so the total lift force is zero.
We have to find the relationship between the drag force, and the relevant parameters of the system:
FD = f(U,D,,)

12
To carry out a set of experiments to characterize the drag forces on spheres, we need to vary four
parameters independently: U,D,,.
• This is time consuming and the resulting data set will be difficult to analyze
• Some kinds of scaling are needed to apply the wind tunnel testing data to a real flow problem.

[FD] = ML/T2
[U] = L/T
[D] = L
[] = M/L3
[] = M/(LT)

( )
1 0 0 1 1
1 1 1 −3 −1
−2 −1 0 0 −1

Rank = 3. We should be able to reduce the total number of the dimensional parameters to (5-3)=2.

π= F aD U b D c ρd μ e
−2 a −1 b c −3 d −1 −1 e 0 0 0
[π ]=(MLT ) (LT ) L (ML ) (ML T ) =M L T
To obtain the π monomial, we have to solve the set of equations
a +d +e=0
a +b+ c−3 d −e=0
−2 a −b−e=0
If we take a=1 and e=0, we can find the first solution for this set of equations. When there are more
than one π monomial, when solving the system of equation it is important to give the value 1 (or -1) to
the exponent of the magnitude we are interesting to obtain in one of the π monomial, and zero in the
others, because it is the method that will allow to obtain the magnitude we are interesting as a function
of the rest of the magnitudes, as we will see and the end of the process.
a=1
a +d +e=0 d =−1
e=0
a +b+ c−3 d −e=0 c=−2
−2 a −b−e=0 b=−2
FD
π 1=ρ−1 U −2 D−2 F D= 2 2
ρU D
This π monomial is related with the drag coefficient that is a dimensionless quantity used to quantify
the drag or resistance of an object in a fluid environment, such as air or water.
The drag coefficient is defined as

13
 2FD
cd =
ρU2 A
Where A is the area.
To obtain the second π monomial, we can take a=0 and e=1.
a +d +e=0 a=0 d =−1
a +b+ c−3 d −e=0 e=1 c=−1
−2 a −b−e=0 b=−1
μ 1
π 2 =ρ−1 U −1 D−1 μ= =
ρU D ℜ

This second π monomial we have obtained is the inverse of the Reynolds number that is an important
dimensionless quantity in fluid mechanics used to help predict flow patterns in different fluid flow
situations.
Finally, according to the π theorem, the relationship between the variables is a function of the two π
monomials we have found:
F (π 1 , π 2 )=0

or
π 1= f (π 2)
FD μ
ρU D
2 2
=f
(ρU D )
μ
F D =ρ U 2 D2 f
(ρU D)

14
Do aerodynamics change with scale?

The model and flow conditions have to be sized to achieve kinematic similarity. The test results have to
be scaled appropriately (not just a ratio of the model size to full size). A way of finding the proper scale
of magnitudes, is using the dimensional analysis.
For instance, if we get from dimensional analysis that the lifting force of an airplane is related with the
air density, r, the airspeed, v, and the area A:
2
F =C v ρ A
we have to use this equation to find the relationship between the force in a model in a wind tunnel and
the real one in a real system.
So, if the velocity is doubled from the model to the real case, the force will be multiplied by 22=4.

15
Scalar and vector magnitudes
Vector
A vector is a geometric object that has magnitude (or length), direction and sense. Many times the
direction include also the sense of the vector.

Sense

|⃗
AB| e
nitud
g
Ma B
Head: final point
⃗
AB
Direction+Sense → Direction
ion A
ir ect
D
Tail: initial point

Az ⃗
k
Y
A y ⃗j
A x ⃗i
X

In a three-dimensional Euclidean space, a given vector can be expressed in three components; if A ⃗

is any vector and ⃗i , ⃗j , ⃗ k is a basis of orthonormal vectors, the scalar components of A ⃗ on
this base are A x = ⃗
A · ⃗i , A y = ⃗
A · ⃗j , and A z= ⃗ ⃗
A · k where the dot ‘·’ designates scalar product:
⃗
A= A x ⃗i + A y ⃗j+ Az ⃗k =( Ax , A y , A Z )
In its geometric representation, reference is usually made to its elements: magnitude and direction
(including sense).
Magnitude of a vector:

A|= √ Ax + Ay + Az
A=| ⃗
2 2 2

16
Unit vector:
⃗
A
u A=
⃗ |⃗
u A|=1 u A=^u A
⃗
A
Properties of vectors:
⃗ and B
Equality: If the vectors A ⃗ are equal, they must have magnitude and direction equal and
⃗ =⃗
their respective components are necessarily equal on the same basis; in other words, A B if and
only if A x =B x , A y =B y , and A z=Bz .

⃗ =⃗
Addition: C A +⃗
B C x = A x + B x , C y =A y + B y , and C z= A z + B z .

Negative of a vector: A⃗ =− ⃗
B if |⃗
A|=|⃗
B| and their directions are opposite. A x =−B x ,
A y =−B y , and A z=−Bz .

Subtraction: ⃗ =⃗
C A−⃗
B C x = A x −B x , C y =A y −B y , and C z= A z −B z .

⃗ =s ⃗
Multiplication by a scalar: B A has magnitude | ⃗ A|=s|B⃗| and has the same direction as
⃗ if s is positive or − A
A ⃗ if s is negative. B x =s A x , B y =s A y , and B z =s A z .

Dot product

a⋅⃗
⃗ a||⃗b|cos α=a x b x + a y b y + a z b z
b=|⃗

b
 
a

17
 a⋅a⃗ =|⃗a|2
⃗

a⊥⃗
⃗ a⋅⃗b=0
b → ⃗
a⋅⃗
⃗ b=⃗b⋅⃗a
Projection
The vector projection (also known as the vector resolute, or vector component) of a vector ⃗
b in the
direction of a vector ⃗
a , is given by:

⃗
b 
a

⃗b⋅⃗a
b a=b cosα=
∣⃗a∣

Direction cosines

Az ⃗
k 
Y
 A y ⃗j
A x ⃗i
X

⃗
A⋅⃗i A x ⃗
A⋅⃗j A y ⃗
A⋅⃗k A z
cos α= = cos β= = cos γ= =
A A A A A A
Cross product

| |
⃗i ⃗j ⃗k
a ×⃗b= a x a y a z
⃗ |⃗a ×⃗b|=|⃗a||⃗b|sin α
bx by bz

18
 ⃗S =⃗a × ⃗b
⃗b
⃗S=⃗a × ⃗b ⃗b
α
⃗a
⃗a

The magnitude of the cross product can be interpreted as the positive area of the parallelogram having
a and ⃗
⃗ b as sides.
Scalar triple product (also called the box product or mixed triple product)
The absolute value of the box product is the volume of the parallelepiped which has edges that are
defined by the three vectors.
a⋅( ⃗
⃗ b×⃗c )

S=b×c


a
a∣cos 
h=∣
a
c

b

V =h|⃗ a⋅( ⃗b×⃗c )

S|=⃗
Derivative and integral of a vector
⃗
A= A x ⃗i + A y ⃗j + Az ⃗k

d⃗
A d Ax ⃗ d A y ⃗ d A z ⃗
= i+ j+ k
dt dt dt dt

∫ ⃗A dt=⃗i ∫ A x dt +⃗j∫ A y dt+ ⃗k ∫ Az dt

Vectors like those described above are called free vectors. Examples of free vectors are the angular
velocity of a rigid body and a torque applied to a rigid body.
The effect of the action of a force on a rigid body depends on the former’s line of action. In other
words, something besides the three components of the vector on a given basis must be specified to fully

19
describe the applied force. So, from a dynamics viewpoint, two forces will be distinguished with the
same components — therefore, with equal vectors — and different lines of action. Vectors associated to
a certain straight line in the space are called sliding vectors. The characterization of a sliding vector
requires its components on a given basis and the description of its line of action (the parameters of the
equation of this straight line, coordinates of a point on the straight line, or any other form of
determination). Examples of sliding vectors are a force applied on a rigid body and the flow velocity of
a fluid in a pipe with a uniform section.
The effect of a force on a deformable body depends, in addition to its line of action, on the point to
which the force is applied. Vectors associated to an application point will be called bound vectors. To
characterize a bound vector one must know its components on a given basis and the coordinates of its
application point. Examples of bound vectors are the momentum of a particle and a force applied to the
end of a spring.

Sliding vectors
We say that a vector is a sliding vector if it can be substitute by any other equipotential vector in the
same line of action.
For defining a slight vector, we need the components of the vector, (vx,vy,vz) and one point of its
straight line of action P(Px,Py,Pz).
( P ;⃗
v)

⃗v
n o
of acti

r
ht line
Straig

⃗v

Moment of a vector (torque of a vector)

Let us consider ⃗v as a sliding vector, associated with a straight line r, A any point in space, and P1
an arbitrary point on r (see Figure). The cross product of vector ⃗
AP1 , position of P1 with respect to
A, with vector ⃗v , is a free vector, called the moment of ⃗v with respect to A.
⃗ A (⃗
M v )=⃗
AP 1× ⃗
v

20
 r r
⃗ A (⃗v )
M
⃗v ⃗v α
P1 P1

A A d

The magnitude of the moment of a vector can be calculated as

|M⃗ A (⃗v )|=|⃗

AP 1||⃗
v|sin α=|⃗v|d

where d is the distance of point A to the line of action r.

Of course, only a sliding vector (or bound vector, a particular case of sliding vector) admits a moment
with respect to one point; the position vector ⃗ AP 1 is not defined for a free vector. The moment of a
vector ⃗v is always a free vector and orthogonal to ⃗v . In fact, according to the definition, the
moment results in an algebraic operation and, as such, does not define a line of action for its result;
moreover, as this operation is a cross product, the resulting vector must necessarily be orthogonal to to
the plane containing ⃗ AP1 and ⃗v , and its direction is given by the right-hand rule.

The moment of a vector with respect to a point will be null if the vector is null or if the line of action of
the vector contains the point. In fact, product ⃗
AP 1×⃗v will be null if one of the vectors is null or if
⃗
AP 1 is parallel to ⃗v .

Lastly, it is worth noting that the moment of a vector with respect to the point A is independent of point
P chosen on the line of action of ⃗v . To check this, one only needs to choose any other point P2 over
r and see that

v )=⃗
⃗ A (⃗
M v =(⃗
AP 1×⃗ AP 2 +⃗ v =⃗
P 2 P1 )×⃗ AP 2×⃗v

⃗v
P1

A P2

Moments Transport Theorem:

21
 ⃗ A (⃗
M v )=⃗ ⃗ B ( ⃗v )
AB×⃗v + M

⃗v
P1

A
B

M v )=⃗
⃗ A (⃗ v =(⃗
AP 1×⃗ AB +⃗ v =⃗
B P1 )×⃗ ⃗ B (⃗v )
v+M
AB×⃗

Moment of a vector with respect to an axis

Axis E
r

⃗v
P1
⃗u
A

Given a point A, an axis (straight line) E passing through A and parallel to a certain adimensional unit
vector ⃗ u and a sliding vector ⃗v associated with the line of action r (see Figure), the moment of
the vector ⃗v with respect to the axis E, M E (⃗v ) , is defined as the component of the moment of
vector ⃗v with respect to the point A, in the direction of the axis, that is
⃗ A( v⃗ )⋅u
M E ( ⃗v )=M ⃗

The moment of a vector ⃗v with respect to an axis E is a scalar (is given by the dot product). The
physical dimension of M E (⃗v ) is the same as M ⃗ A (⃗
v ) , since ⃗
u is adimensional. The moment
of a vector with respect to an axis does not depend on the point on the axis chosen for its calculation,
which justifies no reference to point A in the notation made for a moment with respect to an axis. In
fact, if B is another point on the axis E

⃗ A( ⃗
M E (⃗v )=M u =(⃗
v )⋅⃗ AP 1×⃗ u =( (⃗
v )⋅⃗ BP 1)×⃗v )⋅⃗
AB+⃗ u =(⃗ v )⋅⃗u + ( M
AB ×⃗ ⃗ B (⃗v ))⋅⃗ ⃗ B (⃗v )⋅⃗
u= M u

22
Sliding Vector Systems (SVS)
Consider a set consisting of n sliding vectors of the same physical dimension, ⃗v i , associated with the
line of actions ri, i = 1, 2,..., n, respectively. A set of vectors defined as such will be called a sliding
vector system (SVS). The sliding vector system can be represented by the vectors ⃗v i and a point of
their lien of actions Pi, with i = 1, 2,..., n

{( P i ;⃗v i )} i=1 , 2 ,… , n

⃗v 1
P1
⃗v 2
P2 P3

v3
⃗

⃗v n
Pn

the vector sum of the n sliding vectors is called resultant of the system, that is,

R=∑ ⃗v i
⃗
i

The resultant moment of a SVS with respect to a point A is defined as the vector sum of the moments
with respect to A of the sliding vectors, that is,
⃗ A= ∑ M
M ⃗ A ( ⃗v i)=∑ ⃗
AP i×⃗v i
i i

Moments Transport Theorem

⃗v 2
P2 P3
⃗A
M
B
A ⃗v 3

⃗v 1
P1

The resultant moment of a SVS with respect to any point A is equal to the vector sum of the resultant
moment of the system with respect to a given point B with the moment, with respect to A, of vector
⃗
R , that is,

23
 ⃗ A= M
M ⃗ B +⃗
AB× ⃗
R

Invariant

The product of the resultant and the resultant moment of a SVS is an invariant (it does not depend on
the point A where the resultant moment is calculated)

⃗
R⋅M R⋅(⃗
⃗ A= ⃗ AB× ⃗ ⃗ B )= ⃗
R+ M ⃗B
R⋅M

Moment of a SVS respect to an axis (axial moment)

The resultant moment of a SVS with respect to an axis E, passing through a point O and parallel to an
adimensional unit vector ⃗ u , is defined as the component of the resultant moment of the system at
the point, in direction of the axis, that is,
n n
M E =∑ M E (⃗
v i)=∑ ( M v i ) )⋅⃗u =M
⃗ A(⃗ ⃗ A⋅⃗u
i =1 i =1

Equivalent Systems

Two vector systems V and V’ are said to be equivalent if their resultants are equal and if their resultant
moments are also equal with respect to some point A, that is,
⃗ ⃗'
R= R
⃗ A= M
M ⃗ 'A

⃗v 2
P2
P4 A ⃗v'2
⃗v 4 ⃗v 3
P3 P'2
⃗v 1'
⃗v '3
P'3
⃗v 1 P'1
P1

It is natural that the concept of equivalence is expected to be stronger, such as systems being equivalent
with equal resultants and equal resultant moments for any point in space. It is easy to see, however, that
this is exactly what will happen with systems that fulfill previous equation; otherwise, let us see: If V
and V’ are equivalent, from the moments transport theorem, then, for any point B,
⃗ ' B= M
M ⃗ ' A +⃗
BA× ⃗ ⃗ A+ ⃗
R' =M BA× ⃗ ⃗B
R= M

24
as desired, that is, the resultants of the two systems being equal and their resultant moments also being
equal for a given point, then the resultant moments will also be equal to each other for any other
arbitrarily chosen point.

Translation moment

If two Vector Systems are not equivalents, the translation moment, ⃗ t , is the moment that we have
M
to sum to one of them, in order that the moment of the two system would be the same

⃗ A= M
M ⃗ ' A+ M
⃗t

Concurrent Sliding Vector System. Varignon’s theorem

When the lines of action of a simple vector system all converge at one point, we have a concurrent
system. The resultant moment of the system with respect to the concurrence point, C, will, naturally, be
null, and the central axis of the system will then necessarily pass through the point. Every concurrent
system can, therefore, be reduced to a sliding vector equal to its resultant associated to a line of action
passing through the concurrence point. (This result is known as Varignon’s theorem.)

A v 1
⃗v 2

C
⃗v 3
⃗R
⃗v 4

⃗ A =⃗
M AC× ⃗R

⃗ A=⃗
M AC × ⃗
R

⃗ A= ∑ ⃗
M AP i×⃗v i =∑ ⃗
AC× ⃗ AC ×∑ ⃗
v i =⃗ v i =⃗
AC × ⃗
R
i i i

Couple
When a SVS has a null resultant and nonnull resultant moment with respect to some point in space, it is
called a couple. For instance, two opposite vectors on parallel support straight lines are a couple.

25
 v 1
P1 v 2 =−v 1
A ∣v⃗2∣=∣⃗v 1∣
P2

v 2

According to the moments transport theorem, the resultant moment of a couple is the same for any
point in the space, that is,
⃗ A= M
M ⃗B

The moment of the couple is then an invariant that characterizes it fully.

If SVS is a couple consisting of forces and torques, its resultant moment is called the couple torque.

For the case of two opposite vectors on parallel support straight lines
⃗ A=⃗
M AP 1×⃗v 1+⃗
AP 2×⃗v 2=

⃗
AP 1×⃗v 1−⃗ v 1 =⃗
AP 2 ×⃗ P 2 P 1×⃗v 1

⃗ A=⃗
M P 2 P1×⃗v 1

Parallel Sliding Vector System. Varignon theorem

R =∑ 
vi
i
v n
v i
C *
Pi v i=vi u
Pn
0
P1

v 1

Varignon theorem: the moment of the system is equal to the moment of the resultant with the support
line going through the center of the system (point C). The vector of position of this point is giving by:

∑ ( v *i ⃗
OP i )
⃗
OC =
i

∑ v *i
i

26
 ⃗ O= ∑ ⃗
OP i×⃗v i=∑ ⃗
(∑ v ⃗
OP i×( v i ⃗u )=
)u
* *
M OP ×⃗ i i
i i i

⃗ O( ⃗
M OC ×∑ v⃗i=∑ ( v *i ⃗
R)=⃗
i i
u )=
OC ×⃗
( OC ))×⃗u
∑ ( v *i ⃗
i

27
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