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Module 04 Complete PDF Notes

The document provides a comprehensive overview of boiler systems, detailing their components, functions, and classifications, including fire tube and water tube boilers. It discusses the importance of blowdown for maintaining water quality and preventing scale formation, as well as energy conservation opportunities within boiler operations. Additionally, it highlights methods for optimizing combustion efficiency and reducing energy losses through various control measures.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
19 views203 pages

Module 04 Complete PDF Notes

The document provides a comprehensive overview of boiler systems, detailing their components, functions, and classifications, including fire tube and water tube boilers. It discusses the importance of blowdown for maintaining water quality and preventing scale formation, as well as energy conservation opportunities within boiler operations. Additionally, it highlights methods for optimizing combustion efficiency and reducing energy losses through various control measures.

Uploaded by

aldinglennis
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Boiler Systems

Steam to process Exhaust gases vent Condensate return


Safety valve vents
from process

Deaerator

vent
Boiler
Burner
Blowdown Water source
separator

Softners Brine

Chemical feed

Fig.Boiler
Rajesh S K,Assoc.Room
Professor,EEE Schematic
Dept.,
1 1
Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
Boiler
Boiler is a closed vessel made up of steel to
transfer heat produced by combustion of fuel to
water and hence to generate steam.
The steam produced is used for:
1) For generating power in steam turbines.
2)Heating the residential and industrial
buildings.
3) Performing certain processes in the sugar
mills,chemical industries, textile industries etc

Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,


Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
2 2
• A typical boiler room schematic is shown in
Fig.
• The boiler system comprises of: feed water
system, steam system and fuel system
• The feed water system provides water to the
boiler and regulates it automatically to meet
the steam demand
• Various valves provide access for maintenance
and repair
• The steam system collects and controls the
steam produced in the boiler
Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,
Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
3 3
• Steam is directed through a piping system to
the point of use
• Throughout the system, steam pressure is
regulated using valves and checked with
steam pressure gauges
• The fuel system includes all equipment used
to provide fuel to generate the necessary heat
• The equipment required in the fuel system
depends on the type of fuel used in the
system

Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,


Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
4 4
• The water supplied to the boiler that is
converted into steam is called feed water
• The two sources of feed water are: (1)
Condensate or condensed steam returned
from the processes and (2) Makeup water
(treated raw water) which must come from
outside the boiler room and plant processes
• For higher boiler efficiencies, the feed water is
preheated by economizer, using the waste
heat in the flue gas

Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,


Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
5 5
Boiler Blowdown
• When water is boiled and steam is generated,
any dissolved solids contained in the water
remain in the boiler
• If more solids are put in with the feed water,
they will concentrate and may eventually
reach a level where their solubility in the
water is exceeded and they deposit from the
solution
• Above a certain level of concentration, these
solids encourage foaming and cause carryover
of water into the steam

Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,


Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
6 6
• The deposits also lead to scale formation
inside the boiler, resulting in localized
overheating and finally causing boiler tube
failure
• It is, therefore, necessary to control the level
of concentration of the solids and this is
achieved by the process of ‘blowing down’,
where a certain volume of water is blown off
and is automatically replaced by feed water –
thus maintaining the optimum level of total
dissolved solids (TDS) in the boiler water

Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,


Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
7 7
• Blow down is necessary to protect the surfaces of
the heat exchanger in the boiler
• However, blow down can be a significant source
of heat loss, if improperly carried out
• There are two kinds of blowdown –a)intermittent
blowdown and b)continuous blowdown
• The intermittent blown down is given by
manually operating a valve fitted to discharge
pipe at the lowest point of boiler shell to reduce
parameters (TDS or conductivity, pH, Silica and
Phosphates concentration) within prescribed
limits so that steam quality is not likely to be
affected
Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,
Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
8 8
• In intermittent blowdown, a large diameter line is
opened for a short period of time,the time being
based on a thumb rule such as “once in a shift for
2 minutes”.
• Intermittent blowdown requires large short-term
increases in the amount of feed water put into
the boiler, and hence may necessitate larger feed
water pumps than if continuous blow down is
used
• Also, TDS level will be varying, thereby causing
fluctuations of the water level in the boiler due to
changes in steam bubble size and distribution
which accompany changes in concentration of
solids

Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,


Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
9 9
• Also substantial amount of heat energy is lost
with intermittent blowdown
• In Continuous blowdown, there is a steady
and constant dispatch of small stream of
concentrated boiler water, and replacement
by steady and constant inflow of feed water
• This ensures constant TDS and steam purity at
given steam load
• Once blow down valve is set for a given
conditions, there is no need for regular
operator intervention
Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,
Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
10 10
• Even though large quantities of heat are
wasted, opportunity exists for recovering this
heat by blowing into a flash tank and
generating flash steam
• This flash steam can be used for preheating
boiler feed water or for any other purpose
• This type of blow down is common in high-
pressure boilers

Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,


Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
11 11
CLASSIFICATION OF BOILERS
1)Horizontal , vertical or inclined:
• If the axis of boiler is horizontal, the boiler is
called horizontal boiler.
• If the axis is vertical then it is called vertical
boiler.
• If the axis is inclined then it is called inclined
boiler.
➢Advantage of horizontal boiler:
a. It should be repaired easily.
b. Occupies less floor area.
Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,
Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
1 12
2) Fire tube & water tube boiler:
• In the fire tube boiler the hot gases are inside
the tubes & the water surrounds the tube
eg: Lancashire boiler,Cochran boiler etc
• In the water tube boiler the water is inside the
tube & the hot gases are surround them.
eg: Babcock &Wilcox boiler,
Stirling boiler etc

Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,


Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
2 13
3)Externally & internally fired boilers:
• The boiler is known as externally fired if the
fire is outside the shell.
eg. Babcock & wilcox boiler
• In case of internally fired boilers, the furnace
is located inside the boiler shell.
eg: Cochran boiler
4) High pressure & low pressure boilers:
•The boilers which produce steam at pressure of
80 bar and above are called high pressure boiler
•Eg:Babcox and Wilcox boiler

Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,


Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
3 14
➢ The boiler which produce steam at pressure
below 80 bar are called low pressure boiler
Eg:Cochran boiler
5) Forced circulation & natural circulation:
• In forced circulation type of boilers the
circulation of water is done by forced pumps.
eg:Lamont boiler
• In natural circulation type of boiler the circulation
of water in boiler takes place due to natural
convention.
eg: Lancashire boiler, babcock and wilcox
boiler
Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,
Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
4 15
➢Explain Fire tube boiler and water tube boiler
• According to relative passage of hot gases and
water boilers are classified into
1)Fire tube boilers and
2)Water tube boilers

Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,


Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
5 16
Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,
Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
6 17
Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,
Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
7 18
Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,
Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
8 19
Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,
Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
9 20
Energy Conservation Opportunities in
Boiler
• The various energy conservation opportunities
in boiler system can be related to combustion,
heat transfer, avoidable losses, high auxiliary
power consumption, water quality and
blowdown
• The following are the various energy
conservation opportunities

Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,


Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
1 21
1) Stack Temperature
2) Feed Water Preheating using Economiser
3) Combustion Air Preheat
4)Incomplete Combustion
5) Excess Air Control
6) Radiation and Convection Heat Loss
7) Automatic Blowdown Control
8) Reduction of Scaling and Soot Losses
9) Reduction of Boiler Steam Pressure

Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,


Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
2 22
10) Variable Speed Control for Fans, Blowers and
Pumps
11) Effect of Boiler Loading on Efficiency
12) Proper Boiler Scheduling
13) Boiler Replacement

Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,


Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
3 23
1)Stack Temperature:
• The stack temperature should be as low as
possible
• However, it should not be so low that water
vapor in the exhaust condenses on the stack
walls
• This is important in fuels containing signficant
sulphur as low temperature can lead to
sulphur dew point corrosion
• Stack temperatures greater than 200°C
indicates potential for recovery of waste heat
Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,
Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
4 24
• It also indicate the scaling of heat
transfer/recovery equipment and hence the
urgency of taking an early shut down for water
/ flue side cleaning
2) Feed Water Preheating using Economiser:
• Typically, the flue gases leaving a modern
boiler are at temperatures of 200 to 300 °C.
• Thus, there is a potential to recover heat from
these gases

Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,


Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
5 25
• The flue gas exit temperature from a boiler is
usually maintained at a minimum of 200 °C, so
that the sulphur oxides in the flue gas do not
condense and cause corrosion in heat transfer
surfaces
• When a clean fuel such as natural gas, LPG or
gas oil is used, the economy of heat recovery
must be worked out, as the flue gas
temperature may be well below 200 °C
• The potential for energy saving depends on
the type of boiler installed and the fuel used
Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,
Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
6 26
• For a typically older model shell boiler, with a
flue gas exit temperature of 260 °C, an
economizer could be used to reduce it to 200
°C, increasing the feed water temperature by
15 °C
• Increase in overall thermal efficiency would be
in the order of 3%
• For a modern shell boiler firing natural gas
with a flue gas exit temperature of 140 °C a
condensing economizer would reduce the exit
temperature to 65 °C increasing thermal
efficiency by 5%.

Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,


Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
7 27
3) Combustion Air Preheat:
• Combustion air preheating is an alternative to
feedwater heating
• In order to improve thermal efficiency by 1%,
the combustion air temperature must be
raised by 20 °C.
• Most gas and oil burners used in a boiler plant
are not designed for high air preheat
temperatures

Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,


Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
8 28
• Modern burners can withstand much higher
combustion air preheat, so it is possible to
consider such units as heat exchangers in the
exit flue as an alternative to an economizer,
when either space or a high feed water return
temperature make it viable
4) Incomplete Combustion:
• Incomplete combustion can arise from a
shortage of air or surplus of fuel or poor
distribution of fuel
• It is usually obvious from the colour or smoke,
and must be corrected immediately

Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,


Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
9 29
• In the case of oil and gas fired systems, CO or
smoke (for oil fired systems only) with normal
or high excess air indicates burner system
problems
• A more frequent cause of incomplete
combustion is the poor mixing of fuel and air
at the burner
• Poor oil fires can result from improper
viscosity, worn tips, carbonization on tips and
deterioration of diffusers or spinner plates

Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,


Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
10 30
• With coal firing, unburned carbon can
comprise a big loss
• It occurs as grit carry-over or carbon-in-ash
and may amount to more than 2% of the heat
supplied to the boiler
• Non uniform fuel size could be one of the
reasons for incomplete combustion
• In chain grate stokers, large lumps will not
burn out completely, while small pieces and
fines may block the air passage, thus causing
poor air distribution
Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,
Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
11 31
• In sprinkler stokers, stoker grate condition,
fuel distributors, wind box air regulation and
over-fire systems can affect carbon loss
• Increase in the fines in pulverized coal also
increases carbon loss
5) Excess Air Control:
• Excess air is required in all practical cases to
ensure complete combustion, to allow for the
normal variations in combustion and to
ensure satisfactory stack conditions for some
fuels
Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,
Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
12 32
• The optimum excess air level for maximum
boiler efficiency occurs when the sum of the
losses due to incomplete combustion and loss
due to heat in flue gases is minimum
• This level varies with furnace design, type of
burner, fuel and process variables
• It can be determined by conducting tests with
different air fuel ratios
• Controlling excess air to an optimum level
always results in reduction in flue gas losses;
for every 1% reduction in excess air there is
approximately 0.6% rise in efficiency
Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,
Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
13 33
➢Various methods are available to control the
excess air:
a)Portable oxygen analysers and draft gauges
can be used to make periodic readings to
guide the operator to manually adjust the
flow of air for optimum operation
• Excess air reduction up to 20% is feasible
b) The most common method is the continuous
oxygen analyzer with a local readout mounted
draft gauge, by which the operator can adjust
air flow
Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,
Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
14 34
• A further reduction of 10–15% can be
achieved over the previous system
c) The same continuous oxygen analyzer can
have a remote controlled pneumatic damper
positioner, by which the readouts are available
in a control room
• This enables an operator to remotely control a
number of firing systems simultaneously
d) The most sophisticated system is the
automatic stack damper control, whose cost is
really justified only for large systems
Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,
Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
15 35
6) Radiation and Convection Heat Loss:
• The external surfaces of a shell boiler are
hotter than the surroundings
• The surfaces thus lose heat to the
surroundings depending on the surface area
and the difference in temperature between
the surface and the surroundings
• The heat loss from the boiler shell is normally
a fixed energy loss, irrespective of the boiler
output

Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,


Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
16 36
• With modern boiler designs, this may
represent only 1.5% on the gross calorific
value at full rating, but will increase to around
6%, if the boiler operates at only 25 percent
output
• Repairing or augmenting insulation can reduce
heat loss through boiler walls and piping
7) Automatic Blowdown Control:
• Uncontrolled continuous blowdown is very
wasteful

Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,


Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
17 37
• Automatic blowdown controls can be installed
that sense and respond to boiler water
conductivity and pH
• A 10% blow down in a 15 kg/cm2 boiler results in
3% efficiency loss
8) Reduction of Scaling and Soot Losses:
• In oil and coal-fired boilers, soot buildup on tubes
acts as an insulator against heat transfer
• Any such deposits should be removed on a
regular basis
• Elevated stack temperatures may indicate
excessive soot buildup

Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,


Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
18 38
• Also same result will occur due to scaling on
the water side
• High exit gas temperatures at normal excess
air indicate poor heat transfer performance
• This condition can result from a gradual build-
up of gas-side or waterside deposits
• Waterside deposits require a review of water
treatment procedures and tube cleaning to
remove deposits
• An estimated 1% efficiency loss occurs with
every 22 °C increase in stack temperature
Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,
Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
19 39
• Stack temperature should be checked and
recorded regularly as an indicator of soot
deposits
• When the flue gas temperature rises about 20
°C above the temperature for a newly cleaned
boiler, it is time to remove the soot deposits
• It is, therefore, recommended to install a dial
type thermometer at the base of the stack to
monitor the exhaust flue gas temperature
• It is estimated that 3 mm of soot can cause an
increase in fuel consumption by 2.5% due to
increased flue gas temperatures

Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,


Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
20 40
• Periodic off-line cleaning of radiant furnace
surfaces, boiler tube banks, economizers and air
heaters may be necessary to remove stubborn
deposits
9) Reduction of Boiler Steam Pressure:
• This is an effective means of reducing fuel
consumption, if permissible, by as much as 1 to
2%
• Lower steam pressure gives a lower saturated
steam temperature and without stack heat
recovery, a similar reduction in the temperature
of the flue gas temperature results
Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,
Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
21 41
• Steam is generated at pressures normally
dictated by the highest pressure /
temperature requirements for a particular
process
• In some cases, the process does not operate
all the time, and there are periods when the
boiler pressure could be reduced
• The energy manager should consider pressure
reduction carefully, before recommending it
• Adverse effects, such as an increase in water
carryover from the boiler owing to pressure
reduction, may negate any potential saving
Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,
Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
22 42
• Pressure should be reduced in stages, and no
more than a 20 percent reduction should be
considered
10) Variable Speed Control for Fans, Blowers and
Pumps:
• Variable speed control is an important means
of achieving energy savings
• Generally, combustion air control is effected
by throttling dampers fitted at forced and
induced draft fans

Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,


Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
23 43
• Though dampers are simple means of control,
they lack accuracy, giving poor control
characteristics at the top and bottom of the
operating range
11) Effect of Boiler Loading on Efficiency:
• The maximum efficiency of the boiler does not
occur at full load, but at about two-thirds of
the full load

Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,


Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
24 44
• If the load on the boiler decreases further,
efficiency also tends to decrease
• At zero output, the efficiency of the boiler is zero,
and any fuel fired is used only to supply the
losses
➢ The factors affecting boiler efficiency are:
a) As the load falls, so does the value of the mass
flow rate of the flue gases through the tubes
• This reduction in flow rate for the same heat
transfer area, reduced the exit flue gas
temperatures by a small extent, reducing the
sensible heat loss
Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,
Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
25 45
b) Below half load, most combustion appliances
need more excess air to burn the fuel completely
• This increases the sensible heat loss
• In general, efficiency of the boiler reduces
significantly below 25% of the rated load and as
far as possible, operation of boilers below this
level should be avoided
12) Proper Boiler Scheduling:
• Since, the optimum efficiency of boilers occurs at
65–85% of full load, it is usually more efficient, on
the whole, to operate a fewer number of boilers
at higher loads, than to operate a large number
at low loads
Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,
Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
26 46
13) Boiler Replacement:
• The potential savings from replacing a boiler
depend on the anticipated change in overall
efficiency
• A change in a boiler can be financially
attractive if the existing boiler is
➢old and inefficient
➢ not capable of firing cheaper substitution fuel
➢ over or under-sized for present requirements
➢ not designed for ideal loading conditions

Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,


Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
27 47
• The feasibility study should examine all
implications of long-term fuel availability and
company growth plans
• All financial and engineering factors should be
considered
• Since boiler plants traditionally have a useful
life of well over 25 years, replacement must
be carefully studied

Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,


Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
28 48
49
50
51
Steam System
• Steam has been a popular mode of conveying
energy since the industrial revolution
• Steam is used for generating power and also used
in process industries such as sugar, paper,
fertilizer,refineries, petrochemicals, chemical,
food, textiles etc
• If heat energy is added to water, its temperature
rises until a value is reached at which the water
can no longer exist as a liquid called the
"saturation" point and with any further addition
of energy, some of the water will boil off as steam
Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,
Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
1 52
➢The following characteristics of steam make it
so popular and useful to the industry
1)Highest specific heat and latent heat
2) Highest heat transfer coefficient
3) Easy to control and distribute
4) Cheap and inert
➢Properties of Steam
• Water can exist in the form of solid, liquid and
gas as ice, water and steam respectively
• If heat energy is added to water, its
temperature rises until a value is reached at
which the water can no longer exist as a liquid
Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,
Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
2 53
• We call this the "saturation" point and with
any further addition of energy, some of the
water will boil off as steam
• This evaporation requires relatively large
amounts of energy, and while it is being
added, the water and the steam released are
both at the same temperature
• Equally, if steam is made to release the energy
that was added to evaporate it, then the
steam will condense and water at same
temperature will be formed
Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,
Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
3 54
➢Boiling point or saturation temperature
• The temperature at which water boils, also
called as boiling point or saturation
temperature, increases as the pressure
increases.
➢Liquid enthalpy
• It is the "Enthalpy" (heat energy) in the water
when it has been raised to its boiling point to
produce steam, and is measured in kCal/kg
(also known as "Sensible Heat").

Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,


Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
4 55
➢Enthalpy of Evaporation (Heat Content of
Steam)
• The Enthalpy of evaporation is the heat
energy to be added to the water (when it has
been raised to its boiling point) in order to
change it into steam
• There is no change in temperature, the steam
produced is at the same temperature as the
water from which it is produced, but the heat
energy added to the water changes its state
from water into steam at the same
temperature

Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,


Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
5 56
➢Superheat
• It is the addition of heat to dry saturated
steam without increase in pressure
• The temperature of superheated steam,
expressed as degrees above saturation
corresponding to the pressure, is referred to
as the degrees of superheat

Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,


Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
6 57
Steam System
❖ Steam has been a popular mode of conveying energy since the industrial revolution
❖ Steam is used for generating power and also used in process industries such as sugar,
paper, fertilizer,refineries, petrochemicals, chemical, food, textiles etc
❖ If heat energy is added to water, its temperature rises until a value is reached at which
the water can no longer exist as a liquid called the "saturation" point and with any
further addition of energy, some of the water will boil off as steam
❖ The following characteristics of steam make it so popular and useful to the industry
1)Highest specific heat and latent heat
2) Highest heat transfer coefficient
3) Easy to control and distribute
4) Cheap and inert

Department of EEE, Vidya Academy of Science & Technology 1 58


Properties of Steam
❖Water can exist in the form of solid, liquid and gas as ice, water and steam
respectively.
❖If heat energy is added to water, its temperature rises until a value is reached at
which the water can no longer exist as a liquid.
❖We call this the "saturation" point and with any further addition of energy,
some of the water will boil off as steam.
❖This evaporation requires relatively large amounts of energy, and while it is
being added, the water and the steam released are both at the same temperature.
❖Equally, if steam is made to release the energy that was added to evaporate it,
then the steam will condense and water at same temperature will be formed.

Department of EEE, Vidya Academy of Science & Technology 2 59


Boiling point or saturation temperature
❖The temperature at which water boils, also called as boiling point or saturation
temperature, increases as the pressure increases.

Liquid enthalpy
❖It is the "Enthalpy" (heat energy) in the water when it has been raised to its
boiling point to produce steam, and is measured in kCal/kg, its symbol is hf.
(also known as "Sensible Heat").

Department of EEE, Vidya Academy of Science & Technology 3 60


Enthalpy of Evaporation (Heat Content of Steam)
❖The Enthalpy of evaporation is the heat energy to be added to the water (when
it has been raised to its boiling point) in order to change it into steam.
❖There is no change in temperature, the steam produced is at the same
temperature as the water from which it is produced, but the heat energy added
to the water changes its state from water into steam at the same temperature.

Superheat
❖It is the addition of heat to dry saturated steam without increase in pressure.
❖The temperature of superheated steam, expressed as degrees above saturation
corresponding to the pressure, is referred to as the degrees of superheat.

Department of EEE, Vidya Academy of Science & Technology 4 61


Steam Distribution
❖The steam distribution system is the essential link between the steam generator
and the steam user.
❖Whatever the source, an efficient steam distribution system is essential if steam
of the right quality and pressure is to be supplied, in the right quantity, to the
steam using equipment.
❖Installation and maintenance of the steam system are important issues, and
must be considered at the design stage.

Department of EEE, Vidya Academy of Science & Technology 5 62


Steam Distribution System

Department of EEE, Vidya Academy of Science & Technology 6 63


❖As steam condenses in a process, flow is induced in the supply pipe.
❖Condensate has a very small volume compared to the steam, and this causes a
pressure drop, which causes the steam to flow through the pipes.
❖The steam generated in the boiler must be conveyed through pipework to the
point where its heat energy is required.
❖Initially there will be one or more main pipes, or 'steam mains', which carry
steam from the boiler in the general direction of the steam using plant.
❖Smaller branch pipes can then carry the steam to the individual pieces of
equipment.

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❖As steam passes through the distribution pipework, it will inevitably lose
pressure due to:
❖ Frictional resistance within the pipework

❖ Condensation within the pipework as heat is transferred to the environment.

❖Therefore allowance should be made for this pressure loss when deciding upon
the initial distribution pressure.

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Steam Piping
❖General layout and location of steam consuming equipment is of great
importance in efficient distribution of steam.
❖Steam pipes should be laid by the shortest possible distance rather than to
follow a building layout or road etc.

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❖However, this may come in the way of aesthetic design and architect's plans
and a compromise may be necessary while laying new pipes.
❖Apart from proper sizing of pipe lines, provision must be made for proper
draining of condensate which is bound to form as steam travels along the pipe.
❖For example, a 100 mm well lagged pipe of 30-meter length carrying steam
at 7 kg/cm^2 pressure can condense nearly 10 kg of water in the pipe in
one hour unless it is removed from the pipe through traps.
❖The pipes should run with a fall of not less than 12.5 mm in 3 meter in the
direction of flow.
❖There should also be large pockets in the pipes to enable water to collect
otherwise water will be carried along with steam.

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❖These drain pockets should be provided at every 30 to 50 meters and at any
low point in the pipe network.
❖The pocket should be fitted with a trap to discharge the condensate.
❖Necessary expansion loops are required to take care of the expansion of pipes
when they get heated up.
❖Automatic air vents should be fixed at the dead end of steam mains, which will
allow removal of air which will tend to accumulate.

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Steam Traps
❖The purpose of installing the steam traps is to obtain fast heating of the product
and equipment by keeping the steam lines and equipment free of condensate,
air and non-condensable gases.
❖A steam trap is a valve device that discharges condensate and air from the line
or piece of equipment without discharging the steam.
Functions of Steam Traps
❖The three important functions of steam traps are:
❖ To discharge condensate as soon as it is formed.
❖ Not to allow steam to escape.
❖ To be capable of discharging air and other incondensible gases.

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Types of Steam Traps
There are three basic types of steam trap into which all variations fall, all three
are classified by International Standard ISO 6704:1982.
❖Thermostatic (operated by changes in fluid temperature) - The temperature
of saturated steam is determined by its pressure.
❖In the steam space, steam gives up its enthalpy of evaporation (heat),
producing condensate at steam temperature.
❖As a result of any further heat loss, the temperature of the condensate will fall.
❖A thermostatic trap will pass condensate when this lower temperature is
sensed.
❖As steam reaches the trap, the temperature increases and the trap closes.

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Department of EEE, Vidya Academy of Science & Technology 14 71
❖Mechanical (operated by changes in fluid density) - This range of steam
traps operates by sensing the difference in density between steam and
condensate.
❖These steam traps include 'ball float traps' and 'inverted bucket traps’.
❖In the 'ball float trap', the ball rises in the presence of condensate, opening a
valve which passes the denser condensate.
❖With the 'inverted bucket trap', the inverted bucket floats when steam reaches
the trap and rises to shut the valve.
❖Both are essentially 'mechanical' in their method of operation.

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Operation of inverted bucket steam trap

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❖In (i) the bucket hangs down, pulling the valve off its seat.
❖Condensate flows under the bottom of the bucket filling the body and flowing
away through the outlet.
❖In (ii) the arrival of steam causes the bucket to become buoyant, it then rises
and shuts the outlet.
❖In (iii) the trap remains shut until the steam in the bucket has condensed or
bubbled through the vent hole to the top of the trap body.
❖It will then sink, pulling the main valve off its seat.
❖Accumulated condensate is released and the cycle is repeated.

Department of EEE, Vidya Academy of Science & Technology 17 74


❖Thermodynamic (operated by changes in fluid dynamics) - The
thermodynamic trap is an extremely robust steam trap with a simple mode of
operation.
❖The trap operates by means of the dynamic effect of flash steam as it passes
through the trap.

Thermodynamic steam trap

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Department of EEE, Vidya Academy of Science & Technology 19 76
❖The only moving part is the disc above the flat face inside the
control chamber or cap.
❖On start-up, incoming pressure raises the disc, and cool condensate plus air is
immediately discharged from the inner ring, under the disc, and out through
three peripheral outlets (Figure i).
❖Hot condensate flowing through the inlet passage into the chamber under the
disc drops in pressure and releases flash steam moving at high velocity.
❖This high velocity creates a low pressure area under the disc, drawing it
towards its seat(Figure ii).
❖At the same time, the flash steam pressure builds up inside the chamber above
the disc, forcing it down against the incoming condensate until it seats on the
inner and outer rings.

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❖At this point, the flash steam is trapped in the upper chamber, and the pressure
above the disc equals the pressure being applied to the underside of the disc
from the inner ring.
❖However, the top of the disc is subject to a greater force than the underside, as
it has a greater surface area(Figure iii).
❖Eventually the trapped pressure in the upper chamber falls as the flash steam
condenses.
❖The disc is raised by the now higher condensate pressure and the cycle
repeats(Figure iv).

Department of EEE, Vidya Academy of Science & Technology 21 78


Performance Assessment Methods for Steam Traps
❖Steam trap performance assessment is basically concerned with answering the
following two questions:
❖ Is the trap working correctly or not?
❖ If not, has the trap failed in the open or closed position?
❖Traps that fail 'open' result in a loss of steam and its energy. Where condensate
is not returned, the water is lost as well.
❖The result is significant economic loss, directly via increased boiler plant costs,
and potentially indirectly, via decreased steam heating capacity.
❖Traps that fail 'closed' do not result in energy or water losses, but can result in
significantly reduced heating capacity and/or damage to steam heating
equipment.

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Visual Testing
❖Visual testing includes traps with open discharge, sight glasses, sight checks,
test tees and three way test valves.
❖In every case, the flow or variation of flow is visually observed.
❖This method works well with traps that cycle on/off, or dribble on light load.

Sight Glass
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❖On high flow or process, due to the volume of water and flash steam, this
method becomes less viable.
❖If condensate can be diverted ahead of the trap or a secondary flow can be
turned off, the load on the trap will drop to zero or a very minimal amount so
the visual test will allow in determining the leakage.

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Sound Testing
❖Sound testing includes ultrasonic leak detectors,
mechanics stethoscopes, screwdriver or metal rod with a
human ear against it.
❖All these use the sound created by flow to determine the
trap function like the visual method.
❖This method works best with traps that cycle on/off or
dribble on light load.
❖Traps which have modulating type discharge patterns are Ultrasonic Testing
hard to check on high flows (examples are processes,
heat exchangers, air handling coils, etc).

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❖Again by diverting condensate flow ahead of the trap or shutting off a
secondary flow as mentioned under visual testing, the noise level will drop to
zero or a very low level if the trap is operating correctly.
❖If the trap continues to flow heavily after diversion it would be leaking or
blowing through.

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Temperature Testing
❖Temperature testing includes infrared guns, surface
pyrometers, temperature tapes, and temperature crayons.
❖Typically they are used to gauge the discharge temperature on
the outlet side of the trap.
❖In the case of temperature tapes or crayon, they are set for a
predetermined temperature and they indicate when
temperature exceeds that level.
❖Infrared guns and surface pyrometer can detect temperatures
on both sides of the trap.
Infra Red Testing
❖Both the infrared and surface pyrometers require bare pipe
and a clean surface to achieve a reasonable reading.

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❖The temperature reading will typically be lower than actual internal pipe
temperature due to the fact that steel does have some heat flow resistance.
❖Scale on the inside of the pipe can also effect the heat transfer.
❖Some of the more expensive infrared guns can compensate for wall thickness
and material differences.
❖Blocked or turned off traps can easily be detected by infrared guns and surface
pyrometers, as they will show low or cold temperatures.
❖They could also pick up traps which may be undersized or backing up large
amounts of condensate by detecting low temperature readings.

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Energy Saving Opportunities
1. Monitoring Steam Traps
❖For testing a steam trap, there should be an isolating
valve provided in the downstream of the trap and a test
valve shall be provided in the trap discharge.
❖When the test valve is opened, the following points have
to be observed:
❖ Condensate discharge

❖ Flash steam-If a steam floats out intermittently in a


whitish cloud, it is a flash steam.

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2. Continuous steam blow and no flow indicate, there is a problem in the
trap
❖Whenever a trap fails to operate and the reasons are not readily apparent, the
discharge from the trap should be observed.
❖A step-by-step analysis has to be carried out mainly with reference to
❖ lack of discharge from the trap
❖ steam loss

❖ continuous flow

❖ sluggish heating

to find out whether it is a system problem or the mechanical problem in the


steam trap.

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3. Avoiding Steam Leakages
❖Steam leakage is a visible indicator of waste and
must be avoided.
❖It has been estimated that a 3 mm diameter hole on
a pipeline carrying 7 kg/cm^2 steam would waste
33,000 L of fuel oil per year.
❖Steam leaks on high-pressure mains are
prohibitively costlier than on low pressure mains.
Plume length is the approximate distance at
❖The plant should consider a regular surveillance which water condenses out of the steam.
programme for identifying leaks at pipelines,
valves, flanges and joints.

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❖Indeed, by plugging all leakages, one may be surprised at the extent of fuel
savings, which may reach up to 5% of the steam consumption in a small or
medium scale industry or even higher in installations having several process
departments.
❖To avoid leaks it may be worthwhile considering replacement of the flanged
joints which are rarely opened in old plants by welded joints.

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4. Providing Dry Steam for Process
❖The best steam for industrial process heating is the dry saturated steam.
❖Wet steam can reduce plant productivity and product quality, and can cause
damage to most items of plant and equipment.
❖It must be remembered that a boiler without a super heater cannot deliver
perfectly dry saturated steam. At best, it can deliver only 95% dry steam.
❖The dryness fraction of steam depends on various factors, such as the level of
water to be a part of the steam.
❖Whilst careful drainage and trapping can remove most of the water, it will not
deal with the water droplets suspended in the steam.

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❖A steam separator may be installed on the steam main as well as on the
branch lines to reduce wetness in steam and improve the quality of the steam
going to the units.
❖By change of direction of steam, steam seperators causes the entrained water
particles to be separated out and delivered to a point where they can be
drained away as condensate through a conventional steam trap.

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5. Utilising Steam at the Lowest Acceptable Pressure for the Process
❖A study of the steam tables would indicate that the latent heat in steam reduces
as the steam pressure increases.
❖It is only the latent heat of steam, which takes part in the heating process when
applied to an indirect heating system.
❖Thus, it is important that its value be kept as high as possible. This can only be
achieved if we go in for lower steam pressures.
❖As a guide, the steam should always be generated and distributed at the highest
possible pressure, but utilized at as low a pressure as possible since it then has
higher latent heat.

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6. Proper Utilization of Directly Injected Steam
❖The heating of a liquid by direct injection of steam is often desirable.
❖The equipment required is relatively simple, cheap and easy to maintain. No
condensate recovery system is necessary.
❖The heating is quick, and the sensible heat of the steam is also used up along
with the latent heat, making the process thermally efficient.
❖In processes where dilution is not a problem, heating is done by blowing steam
into the liquid (i.e.) direct steam injection is applied.
❖If the dilution of the tank contents and agitation are not acceptable in the
process (i.e.)direct steam agitation are not acceptable, indirect steam heating is
the only answer.

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7. Minimising Heat Transfer Barriers
❖The metal wall may not be the only barrier in a heat transfer process.
❖There is likely to be a film of air, condensate and scale on the steam side.
❖On the product side there may also be baked-on product or scale, and a
stagnant film of product.

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❖Agitation of the product may eliminate the effect of the stagnant film, whilst
regular cleaning on the product side should reduce the scale.
❖Regular cleaning of the surface on the steam side may also increase the rate of
heat transfer by reducing the thickness of any layer of scale, however, this may
not always be possible.
❖This layer may also be reduced by careful attention to the correct operation of
the boiler, and the removal of water droplets carrying impurities from the
boiler.

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8. Proper Air Venting
❖When steam is first admitted to a pipe after a period of shutdown, the pipe is
full of air.
❖Further amounts of air and other non-condensable gases will enter with the
steam, although the proportions of these gases are normally very small
compared with the steam.
❖The consequence of not removing air is a lengthy warming up period, and a
reduction in plant efficiency and process performance.
❖The pressure and temperature of the steam/air mixture will be lower than that
suggested by a pressure gauge.

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❖A layer of air only 1 mm thick can offer the same
resistance to heat as a layer of water 25 μm thick, a
layer of iron 2 mm thick or a layer of copper 15 mm
thick.
❖Automatic air vents for steam systems should be
fitted above the condensate level so that only air or
steam/air mixtures can reach them.
❖The discharge from an air vent must be piped to a
safe place.

Draining and venting at the end of a


steam main

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9. Condensate Recovery
❖The steam condenses after giving off its latent heat in the heating coil or the
jacket of the process equipment.
❖A sizable portion (about 25%) of the total heat in the steam leaves the process
equipment as hot water.

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❖The percentage of energy in condensate to
that in steam can vary from 18% at 1 bar g
to 30% at 14 bar g; clearly the liquid
condensate is worth reclaiming.
❖If this water is returned to the boiler
house, it will reduce the fuel requirements
of the boiler.
❖For every 60°C rise in the feed water
temperature, there will be approximately
1% saving of fuel in the boiler.

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Benefits of Condensate Recovery
❖Water charges are reduced.
❖Effluent charges and possible cooling costs are reduced.
❖Fuel costs are reduced.
❖More steam can be produced from the boiler.
❖Boiler blowdown is reduced - less energy is lost from the boiler.
❖Chemical treatment of raw make-up water is reduced.

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10. Insulation of Steam Pipelines and Hot Process Equipments
❖Heat can be lost due to radiation from steam pipes.
❖As an example while lagging steam pipes, it is common to see leaving flanges
uncovered.
❖An uncovered flange is equivalent to leaving 0.6 metre of pipe line unlagged.
❖If a 0.15 m steam pipe diameter has 5 uncovered flanges, there would be a loss
of heat equivalent to wasting 5 tons of coal or 3000 litres of oil a year.
❖This is usually done to facilitate checking the condition of flange but at the cost
of considerable heat loss.

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❖The remedy is to provide easily detachable
insulation covers, which can be easily removed
when necessary.
❖The various insulating materials used are cork,
Glass wool, Rock wool and Asbestos.

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❖11. Flash Steam Recovery
❖Flash steam is produced when condensate at a high pressure is released to a
lower pressure and can be used for low pressure heating.
❖The higher the steam pressure and lower the flash steam pressure the greater
the quantity of flash steam that can be generated.
❖In many cases, flash steam from high pressure equipment is made use of
directly on the low pressure equipment to reduce use of steam through pressure
reducing valves.

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❖The flash steam quantity can be calculated by the following formula with the
help of a steam table:
S1−S2
Flash steam available % =
L2
Where: S1 is the sensible heat of higher pressure condensate.
S2 is the sensible heat of the steam at lower pressure (at which it
has been flashed).
L2 is the latent heat of flash steam (at lower pressure).

Department of EEE, Vidya Academy of Science & Technology 47 104


12. Reducing the work to be done by steam
❖The equipment should be supplied with steam as dry as possible.
❖The plant should be made efficient.
❖For example, if any product is to be dried such as in a laundry, a press could be
used to squeeze as much water as possible before being heated up in a dryer
using steam.
❖Therefore, to take care of the above factors, automatic draining is essential and
can be achieved by steam traps.
❖When the steam reaches the place where its heat is required, it must be ensured
that the steam has no more work to do than is absolutely necessary.

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❖Air-heater batteries, for example, which provide hot air for drying, will use the
same amount of steam whether the plant is fully or partly loaded.
❖So, if the plant is running only at 50 percent load, it is wasting twice as much
steam (or twice as much fuel) than necessary.
❖Always use the most economical way to removing the bulk of water from the
wet material. Steam can then be used to complete the process.
❖For this reason, hydro-extractors, spin dryers, squeeze or calendar rolls,
presses, etc. are initially used in many drying processes to remove the mass of
water.
❖The efficiency with which this operation is carried out is most important.

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107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
Furnaces and Classifications
• A furnace is an equipment to melt metals for
casting or heat materials for change of shape
(rolling, forging etc) or change of properties (heat
treatment)
• Based on the method of generating heat,
furnaces are broadly classified into two types
namely combustion type (using fuels) and electric
type using electricity
• In case of combustion type furnace, depending
upon the kind of combustion, it can be broadly
classified as oil fired, coal fired or gas fired
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• Based on the mode of charging of material
furnaces can be classified as (i) Intermittent or
Batch type furnace or Periodical furnace and
(ii) Continuous furnace
• Based on mode of waste heat recovery as
recuperative and regenerative furnaces
• Another type of furnace classification is made
based on mode of heat transfer, mode of
charging and mode of heat recovery

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General Fuel Economy Measures in Furnaces
➢ General Fuel Economy measures for an industry
with furnace are:
1) Complete combustion with minimum excess air
2) Correct heat distribution
3) Operating at the desired temperature
4) Reducing heat losses from furnace openings
5) Maintaining correct amount of furnace draft
6) Optimum capacity utilization
7) Waste heat recovery from the flue gases
8) Minimum refractory losses
9) Use of Ceramic Coatings
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1)Complete combustion with minimum excess air
• The amount of heat lost in the flue gases
(stack losses) depends upon amount of excess
air
• In the case of a furnace carrying away flue
gases at 900°C, % heat lost is shown below

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• To obtain complete combustion of fuel with
the minimum amount of air, it is necessary to
control air infiltration, maintain pressure of
combustion air, fuel quality and excess air
monitoring
• Higher excess air will reduce flame
temperature, furnace temperature and
heating rate
• On the other hand, if the excess air is less,
then unburnt components in flue gases will
increase and would be carried away in the flue
gases through stack

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• The optimization of combustion air is the most
attractive and economical measure for energy
conservation
• The impact of this measure is higher when the
temperature of furnace is high
• Air ratio is the value that is given by dividing
the actual air amount by the theoretical
combustion air amount, and it represents the
extent of excess of air

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2) Correct heat distribution
• Furnace design should be such that in a given
time, as much of the stock could be heated
uniformly to a desired temperature with
minimum fuel firing rate
• Following care should be taken when using
burners, for proper heat distribution
a) The flame should not touch any solid object
and should propagate clear of any solid
object

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Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
• Any obstruction will deatomise the fuel
particles thus affecting combustion and create
black smoke
• If flame impinges on the stock, there would be
increase in scale losses
b) If the flames impinge on refractories, the
incomplete combustion products can settle
and react with the refractory constituents at
high flame temperatures
c) The flames of different burners in the furnace
should stay clear of each other
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Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
• If they intersect, inefficient combustion would
occur. It is desirable to stagger the burners on
the opposite sides
d) The burner flame has a tendency to travel
freely in the combustion space just above the
material
• In small furnaces, the axis of the burner is
never placed parallel to the hearth but always
at an upward angle. Flame should not hit the
roof

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Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
e) The larger burners produce a long flame, which
may be difficult to contain within the furnace
walls. More burners of less capacity give better
heat distribution in the furnace and also increase
furnace life
f) For small furnaces, it is desirable to have a long
flame with golden yellow colour while firing
furnace oil for uniform heating.
• The flame should not be too long that it enters
the chimney or comes out through the furnace
top or through doors.
• In such cases, major portion of additional fuel is
carried away from the furnace

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3)Maintaining Optimum Operating Temperature of Furnace

• It is important to operate the furnace at


optimum temperature
• The operating temperatures of various
furnaces are given in Table

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• Operating at too high temperatures than
optimum causes heat loss, excessive
oxidation, decarbonization as well as over-
stressing of the refractories
• These controls are normally left to operator
judgment, which is not desirable
• To avoid human error, on/off controls should
be provided

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Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
4) Prevention of Heat Loss through Openings:
• Heat loss through openings consists of the
heat loss by direct radiation through openings
and the heat loss caused by combustion gas
that leaks through openings
• The heat loss from an opening can be
calculated using the formula

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5) Control of furnace draft:
• If negative pressures exist in the furnace, air
infiltration is liable to occur through the cracks
and openings thereby affecting air-fuel ratio
control
• Tests conducted on apparently airtight furnaces
have shown air infiltration up to the extent of
40%.
• Neglecting furnaces pressure could mean
problems of cold metal and non-uniform metal
temperatures, which could affect subsequent
operations like forging and rolling and result in
increased fuel consumption
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• For optimum fuel consumption, slight positive
pressure should be maintained in the furnace.
• In addition to the proper control on furnace
pressure, it is important to keep the openings
as small as possible and to seal them in order
to prevent the release of high temperature gas
and intrusion of outside air through openings
such as the charging inlet, extracting outlet
and peep-hole on furnace walls or the ceiling

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6) Optimum Capacity Utilization:
• One of the most vital factors affecting
efficiency is loading
• There is a particular loading at which the
furnace will operate at maximum thermal
efficiency
• It is necessary to load a furnace at the rate
associated with optimum efficiency although
there are limitations to achieve this
sometimes imposed by work availability or
other factors beyond control
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Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
• The other reason for not operating the
furnace at optimum loading is the
mismatching of furnace dimension with
respect to charge and production schedule
7) Waste Heat Recovery from Furnace Flue
Gases:
• Waste heat recovery should be considered
after all other energy conservation measures
have been taken
• Minimizing the generation of waste heat
should be the primary objective
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Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
• The sensible heat in flue gases can be
generally recovered by
➢Charge (stock) preheating
➢ Preheating of combustion air
➢ Utilizing waste heat for other process (to
generate steam or hot water by a waste heat
boiler)

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8) Minimising Wall Losses:
• About 30–40% of the fuel input to the furnace
generally goes to make up for heat losses in
intermittent or continuous furnaces
• The appropriate choice of refractory and
insulation materials will achieve, fairly high
fuel savings in industrial furnaces
• The heat losses from furnace walls affect the
fuel economy considerably and wall losses
depend on the following

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Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
➢Emissivity of wall
➢ Thermal conductivity of refractories
➢Wall thickness
➢ Whether furnace is operated continuously or
intermittently
• Heat losses can be reduced by increasing the
wall thickness, or through the application of
insulating bricks

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9) Use of Ceramic Coatings:
• Ceramic coatings in furnace chamber promote
rapid and efficient transfer of heat, uniform
heating and extended life of refractories
• The emissivity of conventional refractories
decreases with increase in temperature
whereas for ceramic coatings it increases
• Ceramic coatings are high emissivity coatings
which when applied has a long life at
temperatures up to 1350°C

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• The coatings fall into two general categories-
those used for coating metal substrates, and
those used for coating refractory substrates
• The coatings are non-toxic, non-flammable
and water based
• Applied at room temperatures, they are
sprayed and air dried in less than five minutes
• The coatings allow the substrate to maintain
its designed metallurgical properties and
mechanical strength

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HVAC System
• HVAC stands for Heating, Ventilation and Air
Conditioning
• HVAC refers to the different systems used for
moving air between indoor and outdoor areas
along with heating and cooling both residential
and commercial buildings
• They are the systems that keeps the areas warm
in the winter and feeling cool and fresh in the
summer
• They also are the systems that filter and clean
indoor air to keep you healthy and maintain
humidity levels at optimal comfort levels
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Factors affecting performance in refrigeration
and air conditioning systems
1) Design of Process Heat Exchangers
2) Maintenance of Heat Exchanger Surfaces
3) Multi-Staging For Efficiency
4) Matching Capacity to System Load
5) Capacity Control and Energy Efficiency
6) Multi-level Refrigeration for Plant Needs
7) Chilled Water Storage
8) System Design Features
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1)Design of Process Heat Exchangers:
• There is a tendency of the process group to
operate with high safety margins which
influences the compressor suction pressure /
evaporator set point
• Having the optimum / minimum driving force
(temperature difference) can, thus, help to
achieve highest possible suction pressure at
the compressor, thereby leading to less energy
requirement

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• This requires proper sizing of heat transfer
areas of process heat exchangers and
evaporators as well as rationalizing the
temperature requirement to highest possible
value
• A 1°C raise in evaporator temperature can
help to save almost 3 % on power
consumption
• The TR capacity of the same machine will also
increase with the evaporator temperature

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Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
2) Maintenance of Heat Exchanger Surfaces
• After ensuring procurement, effective
maintenance holds the key to optimizing
power consumption
• Heat transfer can also be improved by
ensuring proper separation of the lubricating
oil and the refrigerant, timely defrosting of
coils, and increasing the velocity of the
secondary coolant (air, water, etc.)

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• However, increased velocity results in larger
pressure drops in the distribution system and
higher power consumption in pumps / fans
• Therefore, careful analysis is required to
determine the most effective and efficient
option
• Fouled condenser tubes force the compressor
to work harder to attain the desired capacity
• Similarly, fouled evaporators (due to residual
lubricating oil or infiltration of air) result in
increased power consumption
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3) Multi-Staging For Efficiency:
• Efficient compressor operation requires that
the compression ratio be kept low, to reduce
discharge pressure and temperature
• For low temperature applications involving
high compression ratios, and for wide
temperature requirements, it is preferable
(due to equipment design limitations) and
often economical to employ multi-stage
reciprocating machines or centrifugal / screw
compressors
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• Multi-staging systems are of two-types:
compound and cascade – and are applicable
to all types of compressors
• With reciprocating or rotary compressors,
two-stage compressors are preferable for load
temperatures from –20 to –58°C, and with
centrifugal machines for temperatures around
–43°C

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Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
4) Matching Capacity to System Load:
• During part-load operation, the evaporator
temperature rises and the condenser
temperature falls, effectively increasing the
COP
• But at the same time, deviation from the
design operation point and the fact that
mechanical losses form a greater proportion
of the total power negate the effect of
improved COP, resulting in lower part-load
efficiency
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• Therefore, consideration of part-load
operation is important, because most
refrigeration applications have varying loads
• The load may vary due to variations in
temperature and process cooling needs
• Matching refrigeration capacity to the load is a
difficult exercise, requiring knowledge of
compressor performance, and variations in
ambient conditions, and detailed knowledge
of the cooling load

Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,


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Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
5) Capacity Control and Energy Efficiency:
• The capacity of compressors is controlled in a
number of ways
• Capacity control of reciprocating compressors
through cylinder unloading results in
incremental (step-by-step) modulation as
against continuous capacity modulation of
centrifugal through vane control and screw
compressors through sliding valves
• Therefore, temperature control requires
careful system design
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• The efficiency of screw compressors operating
at part load is generally higher than either
centrifugal compressors or reciprocating
compressors, which may make them attractive
in situations where part-load operation is
common
• Screw compressor performance can be
optimized by changing the volume ratio

Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,


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Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
6) Multi-level Refrigeration for Plant Needs:
• The selection of refrigeration systems also
depends on the range of temperatures
required in the plant
• For diverse applications requiring a wide range
of temperatures, it is generally more
economical to provide several packaged units
(several units distributed throughout the
plant) instead of one large central plant
• Another advantage would be the flexibility
and reliability accorded
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• The selection of packaged units could also be
made depending on the distance at which
cooling loads need to be met
• Packaged units at load centers reduce
distribution losses in the system
7) Chilled Water Storage:
• Depending on the nature of the load, it is
economical to provide a chilled water storage
facility with very good cold insulation

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• Also, the storage facility can be fully filled to
meet the process requirements so that chillers
need not be operated continuously
• This system is usually economical if small
variations in temperature are acceptable
• This system has the added advantage of
allowing the chillers to be operated at periods
of low electricity demand to reduce peak
demand charges

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Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
• Low tariffs offered by some electric utilities for
operation at night time can also be taken
advantage of by using a storage facility
• An added benefit is that lower ambient
temperature at night lowers condenser
temperature and thereby increases the COP
8) System Design Features:
• In overall plant design, adoption of good
practices improves the energy efficiency
significantly

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• Some areas for consideration are:
✓Design of cooling towers with impellers and
film fills, PVC drift eliminators, etc
✓Use of softened water for condensers in place
of raw water
✓Use of economic insulation thickness on cold
lines, heat exchangers, considering cost of
heat gains and adopting practices like infrared
thermography for monitoring-applicable
especially in large chemical / fertilizer /
process industry
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• Adoption of roof coatings / cooling systems, false
ceilings / as applicable, to minimize refrigeration
load
• Adoption of energy efficient heat recovery
devices like air to air heat exchangers to pre-cool
the fresh air by indirect heat exchange; control of
relative humidity through indirect heat exchange
rather than use of duct heaters after chilling
• Adopting of variable air volume systems;
adopting of sun film application for heat
reflection; optimizing lighting loads in the air
conditioned areas; optimizing number of air
changes in the air conditioned areas are few
other examples
Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,
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Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
Energy Saving Opportunities in
refrigeration and air conditioning systems
➢Major energy saving opportunities are
1) Cold Insulation
2) Building Envelope
3) Building Heat Loads Minimisation
4) Process Heat Loads Minimisation
5) At the Refrigeration A/C Plant Area

Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,


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Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
1) Cold Insulation:
• Insulate all cold lines / vessels using economic
insulation thickness to minimize heat gains;
and choose appropriate (correct) insulation
2) Building Envelope:
• Optimise air conditioning volumes by
measures such as use of false ceiling and
segregation of critical areas for air
conditioning by air curtains

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3)Building Heat Loads Minimisation:
• Minimise the air conditioning loads by
measures such as roof cooling, roof painting,
efficient lighting, pre-cooling of fresh air by
air- to-air heat exchangers, variable volume air
system, optimal thermo-static setting of
temperature of air conditioned spaces, sun
film applications, etc

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4)Process Heat Loads Minimisation:
• Minimize process heat loads in terms of TR
capacity as well as refrigeration level, i.e.,
temperature required, by way of
i. Flow optimization
ii. Heat transfer area increase to accept higher
temperature coolant
iii. Avoiding wastages like heat gains, loss of
chilled water, idle flows
iv. Frequent cleaning / de-scaling of all heat
exchangers
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5)At the Refrigeration A/C Plant Area:
i)Ensure regular maintenance of all A/C plant
components as per manufacturer guidelines.
ii) Ensure adequate quantity of chilled water and
cooling water flows, avoid bypass flows by
closing valves of idle equipment.
iii) Minimize part load operations by matching
loads and plant capacity on line; adopt
variable speed drives for varying process load.

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iv)Make efforts to continuously optimize
condenser and evaporator parameters for
minimizing specific energy consumption and
maximizing capacity.
v) Adopt VAR system where economics permit
as a solution.

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Waste heat recovery system
• Waste heat is heat which is generated in a
process by way of fuel combustion or chemical
reaction and then dumped into the
envirnonment even though it could still be
reused for some useful and economic purpose
• The essential quality of heat is not the amount
but rather its value
• The strategy of how to recover this heat
depends in part on the temperature of the
waste heat gases and the economics involved
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• Large quantity of hot flue gases is generated
from boilers,furnaces and ovens
• If some of this waste heat could be recovered,
a considerable amount of primary fuel could
be saved
• The energy lost in waste gases cannot be fully
recovered
• However much of the heat could be recovered
and minimize the overall losses

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Energy saving opportunities in waste
heat recovery system
• In considering the potential for heat recovery,
it is useful to note all the possibilities and
grade the waste heat in terms of potential
value as shown in the table

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Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,
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Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
Cogeneration
• Cogeneration or Combined Heat and Power (CHP)
is defined as the simultanious production of
electricity and heat
• Using a fuel to Simultaniously generate electricity
and heat with a single unit is more efficient and
cost-effective than generating electricity and heat
separately in two different units
• Here the mechanical energy may be used either
to drive an alternator for producing electricity, or
rotating equipment such as motor, compressor,
pump or fan for delivering various services
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• Thermal energy can be used either for direct
process applications or for indirectly
producing steam, hot water or hot air
➢Benefits of Cogeneration
1) Increased energy efficiency
2) Lower emissions
3) Reduced energy costs
4) Supporting renewable energy
5) Reduced transmission and distribution costs
6) Reduced import dependency

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Optimal operation of Cogeneration plants

Fig.Cogeneration Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,


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Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
• For example in the scheme shown in Figure 1, an
industry requires 24 units of electrical energy and
34 units of heat energy
• Through separate heat and power route the
primary energy input in power plant will be 60
units (24/0.40).
• If a separate boiler is used for steam generation
then the fuel input to boiler will be 40 units
(34/0.85)
• If the plant had cogeneration then the fuel input
will be only 68 units (24+34)/0.85 to meet both
electrical and thermal energy requirements
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• It can be observed that the losses, which were
42 units in the case of, separate heat and
power has reduced to 10 units in cogeneration
mode
• Along with the saving of fossil fuels,
cogeneration also allows to reduce the
emission of greenhouse gases (particularly
CO2 emission)
• The production of electricity being on-site, the
burden on the utility network is reduced and
the transmission line losses eliminated
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• Cogeneration makes sense from both macro
and micro perspectives
• At the macro level, it allows a part of the
financial burden of the national power utility
to be shared by the private sector; in addition,
indigenous energy sources are conserved
• At the micro level, the overall energy bill of
the users can be reduced, particularly when
there is a simultaneous need for both power
and heat at the site, and a rational energy
tariff is practiced in the country
Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,
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Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
Types of Cogeneration Systems

• The various types of cogeneration systems are


1) Steam Turbine Cogeneration systems
2) Gas Turbine Cogeneration Systems
3) Reciprocating Engine Cogeneration Systems

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1) Steam Turbine Cogeneration systems

Back pressure steam turbine Extraction condensing steam turbine


Fig . Schematic diagram of steam turbine cogeneration
system
Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,
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• The two types of steam turbines most widely
used are the backpressure type and the
extraction type
• Another variation of the steam turbine
topping cycle cogeneration system is the
extraction-back pressure turbine that can be
employed where the end-user needs thermal
energy at two different temperature levels
• The full-condensing steam turbines are usually
incorporated at sites where heat rejected from
the process is used to generate power
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• The specific advantage of using steam turbines
in comparison with the other prime movers is
the option for using a wide variety of
conventional as well as alternative fuels such
as coal, natural gas, fuel oil and biomass
• The power generation efficiency of the
demand for electricity is greater than one MW
up to a few hundreds of MW

Rajesh S K,Assoc. Professor,EEE Dept.,


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2) Gas Turbine Cogeneration Systems

Fig. Gas turbine cogeneration system


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• Gas turbine cogeneration has probably
experienced the most rapid development in
the recent years due to the greater availability
of natural gas, rapid progress in the
technology, significant reduction in installation
costs, and better environmental performance
• Furthermore, the gestation period for
developing a project is shorter and the
equipment can be delivered in a modular
manner

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• Gas turbine has a short start-up time and
provides the flexibility of intermittent
operation
• Though it has a low heat to power conversion
efficiency, more heat can be recovered at
higher temperatures
• If the heat output is less than that required by
the user, it is possible to have supplementary
natural gas firing by mixing additional fuel to
the oxygen-rich exhaust gas to boost the
thermal output more efficiently
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• On the other hand, if more power is required
at the site, it is possible to adopt a combined
cycle that is a combination of gas turbine and
steam turbine cogeneration
• Steam generated from the exhaust gas of the
gas turbine is passed through a backpressure
or extraction-condensing steam turbine to
generate additional power
• The exhaust or the extracted steam from the
steam turbine provides the required thermal
energy
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3) Reciprocating Engine Cogeneration Systems

Fig.Reciprocating Engine cogeneration system

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• These are also known as internal combustion
(I. C.) engines and these cogeneration
systems have high power generation
efficiencies in comparison with other prime
movers
• There are two sources of heat for recovery:
exhaust gas at high temperature and engine
jacket cooling water system at low
temperature as shown in the fig.

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• As heat recovery can be quite efficient for
smaller systems, these systems are more
popular with smaller energy consuming
facilities, particularly those having a greater
need for electricity than thermal energy and
where the quality of heat required is not high
e.g. low pressure steam or hot water

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Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
Operating Schemes of Cogeneration

• The operating scheme of a cogeneration


system is very much site-specific and depends
on several factors, as described below
1) Base electrical load matching
2) Base Thermal Load Matching
3) Electrical Load Matching
4) Thermal Load Matching

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1)Base electrical load matching:
• In this configuration, the cogeneration plant is
sized to meet the minimum electricity
demand of the site based on the historical
demand curve
• The rest of the needed power is purchased
from the utility grid
• The thermal energy requirement of the site
could be met by the cogeneration system
alone or by additional boilers

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• If the thermal energy generated with the base
electrical load exceeds the plant’s demand
and if the situation permits, excess thermal
energy can be exported to neighboring
customers
2) Base Thermal Load Matching:
• Here, the cogeneration system is sized to
supply the minimum thermal energy
requirement of the site
• Stand-by boilers or burners are operated
during periods when the demand for heat is
higher
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• The prime mover installed operates at full
load at all times
• If the electricity demand of the site exceeds
that which can be provided by the prime
mover, then the remaining amount can be
purchased from the grid
• Likewise, if local laws permit, the excess
electricity can be sold to the power utility

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Vidya Engineering College,Thrissur
3) Electrical Load Matching:
• In this operating scheme, the facility is totally
independent of the power utility grid
• All the power requirements of the site,
including the reserves needed during
scheduled and unscheduled maintenance, are
to be taken into account while sizing the
system
• This is also referred to as a “stand-alone”
system

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• If the thermal energy demand of the site is
higher than that generated by the
cogeneration system, auxiliary boilers are used
• On the other hand, when the thermal energy
demand is low, some thermal energy is wasted
• If there is a possibility, excess thermal energy
can be exported to neighboring facilities
4) Thermal Load Matching:
• The cogeneration system is designed to meet
the thermal energy requirement of the site at
any time
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• The prime movers are operated following the
thermal demand
• During the period when the electricity
demand exceeds the generation capacity, the
deficit can be compensated by power
purchased from the grid
• Similarly, if the local legislation permits,
electricity produced in excess at any time may
be sold to the utility

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Assignment No II
1)Explain the Assessment of steam distribution
losses.
2)Explain in detail about Steam leakages and
Steam trapping.
3)Discuss condensate and flash steam recovery
system.
4)Discuss the energy saving opportunities in a
steam system.
Submit on 2/5/2024,Thursday

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