Lecture 4

Communication : Basics 2
In the previous lecture,we discussed the need for modulation, which can be summarized as

1. Effective use of the channel through multiplexing.

2. Constraint on the physical layer regarding the size of antennas.
3. Power requirements.

The implications will be discussed later. The important thing to be noted is the difference
between bandwidth and carrier frequency. Both these terms have their own relevance. Carrier
frequency indicates the frequency of the carrier signal, whereas, the bandwidth is decided by the
message that is to be transmitted. We had taken the example of analog speech signals which have
a bandwidth of 4 kHz, but after analog-to-digital conversion, the same signal corresponds to a bit
rate of 64 kbps, depending upon the choice of the sampling frequency and the resolution of
quantization.

Now that we know that modulation is essential, we try to understand the difference between
analog modulation and digital modulation, and make a comparison between them.
• Analog modulation: The picture on the top-left shows the message signal as a voltage,
which is the modulating signal. For the sake of simplicity, a sinusoid is taken as the basic
example of an analog message signal. The carrier signal is considered to be a sinusoid with
frequency fC. Using the modulating (message) signal, one of the properties of the carrier
signal may be modulated, thus leading to the following types of modulation.
o Amplitude modulation: The amplitude of the carrier signal is varied according to the
modulating signal.
o Frequency modulation: The carrier frequency itself is varied according to the
modulating signal.
o Phase modulation: The phase of the carrier signal is varied depending on the modulating
signal. A phase modulated signal may look identical to the frequency modulated signal,
because phase and frequency are closely related to each other: the time-derivative of
phase is the instantaneous frequency.

The telephone signals used in the past are examples of analog signals.

• Digital modulation: On the right, we see a digital modulating signal, which is a sequence of
bits 1 and 0. Corresponding to the analog modulation formats, digital modulation can also be
categorized into 3 types of keying.
o Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK): The amplitude of the carrier is modified according to
the bit; for example- bit‘1’ represents high amplitude; while bit‘0’ represents low
amplitude. This format is more popularly known as On-Off Keying (OOK).
o Frequency shift keying (FSK) : The carrier frequency is switched between two
frequencies. Note that unlike frequency modulation where the frequency is continuously
varied, the carrier frequency in FSK can be in one of the 2 states - a high frequency and a
low frequency.
o Phase Shift Keying (PSK) : The phase of the carrier signal is switched between two
values, 0 and π, corresponding to the bits 1 and 0.

The Fourier transform, or the frequency spectrum of a sinusoid with frequency fC is represented
as two impulses (Dirac δ-function) at frequencies ±fC. When the carrier signal is modulated with
a message signal, the spectrum of the carrier signal broadens, and the width of the broadened
spectrum is dependent on the bandwidth of the modulating signal. It is important to have the
bandwidth of the signal spectrum in mind, because there are certain effects (impairments) in
fiber optical communication systems, which are dependent on the bandwidth. For example,
chromatic dispersion in the fiber is dependent on the signal bandwidth.

Another important point to bear in mind is the distinction between bandwidth and linewidth.
Signal bandwidth is a consequence of the spectral width of the modulating signal, as discussed
above, whereas linewidth is the property of the carrier signal. Due to certain imperfections
(phase noise) in the laser source generating the carrier signal, its spectrum may not be an ideal δ-
function; it may have a finite width, which is better known as linewidth. The chromatic
dispersion is dependent on the bandwidth, rather than the linewidth.

Conventionally, optical communication is carried out predominantly with digital modulation.

Recently, we have realized that analog modulation may be better for certain specific
applications, which we will deal with when we talk about networks. But predominantly, optical
communication systems deal with digital modulation.

Let us have a look at the advantages of digital modulation.

• Ease of storage: It is convenient to store data in digital format, in the form of bits, using
registers/buffers and digital memory devices. Storing and retrieving data in analog forms is
relatively complicated (magnetic tapes and memories) and inefficient.
• Signaling/multiplexing: Since the signal consists of only discrete amplitude levels, signaling
(encoding and decoding) is relatively simpler, compared to analog signals, where there are
continuous (infinite) amplitude levels. Due to discrete nature of the signal, it is easier to
multiplex/demultiplex data from multiple sources on the same channel.
• Robust to distortion: Since the signal consists of discrete values, even if the signal gets
distorted in the link, a simple thresholding and level detection to retrieve high and low levels
(1 and 0 bits) may be sufficient for successful detection (at an appropriate sampling instant).
Such robustness to distortion is not possible with analog modulation.
• Digital signal processing: One of the key benefits in case of digital signal is the possibility
of signal processing, which means that the signal can be collected, and samples can be
retrieved at an optimum sampling instant through offline processing. Once the samples are
recovered, certain operations such as filtering, averaging, low-pass/high-pass filtering can be
carried out in the digital domain to do the data recovery from the samples. Correspondingly,
analog processing is also possible, but it requires complicated design of electronics. In case
of digital signals, the samples can be put through the traditional digital signal processors to
perform such operations, so as to improve the quality of the recovered data. Thus, the
possibility of digital signal processing is probably the biggest advantage of digital signals.
• Error correction codes: The possibility of error correction codes is another advantage,
which is implemented by building in redundancy in the transmitted bit sequence, so that,
even if some bits are lost in the transmission, the original bit sequence can still be worked out
with the received bits. For example, instead of sending 100 information bits, we may send
110 bits or 120 bits using some kind of redundancy. There are various schemes for adding
redundancy, which are typically referred to as Error Correction Codes. Using this redundancy
and a relevant digital processing algorithm, the original bit sequence can be recovered even
when the signal to noise ratio of the received signal is poor. Such an error correction is not
possible in case of analog processing.

There are a few drawbacks for digital modulation as well.

• Increased bandwidth: The analog-to-digital conversion process increases the signal
bandwidth from fB to 2 × 𝑓𝑓𝐵𝐵 × log 2 𝑁𝑁, and hence a digital signal requires a larger bandwidth
for transmission compared to the original message signal.
• Increases processing and latency: The data recovery process, especially using the error
correction codes, requires additional overhead and complexities due to signal processing.
Also, the latency in storage, buffering, and processing algorithms contribute to a delay
between the reception of signal and recovery of data.

However, the advantages of the digital modulation far outweigh the disadvantages, which is why
predominantly digital signals are used for optical communication.

We now talk about the carrier frequencies used in digital communication, on what basis are they
chosen, andwhat are the factors to be considered to decide the carrier frequency. Depending on
the carrier frequency chosen, we need to have an appropriate source and detector.

1. Bandwidth: The first factor to be considered is the bandwidth of the signal that needs to be
transmitted. Consider a baseband message signal of bandwidth B, such that its power spectral
density S(f) spans from frequency –B to B . Upon modulation, this spectrum gets translated
to the carrier frequency fC, so that the spectrum of the modulated signal spans from fC –B to
fC+B . Given this carrier frequency, if the signal bandwidth is increased, there may arise a
situation where the modulated signal spectrum crosses zero frequency and folds over, which
is undesirable. Thus, for a given carrier frequency, the signal bandwidth cannot be chosen
arbitrarily. As a rule of thumb, the signal bandwidth must be limited to 10% of the carrier
frequency. For instance, if the carrier frequencyis 1 GHz, the signal bandwidth should
typically be limited to 100 MHz. Of course, this number is dependent on the kind of
modulation scheme used, sampling rate, quantization levels, but as a thumb rule, the signal
bandwidth should not be very close to fC. Consider internet, with such a large volume of
videos being streamed or downloaded at the same time, the signal bandwidth is huge, so it
requires a suitably large carrier frequency as well, which is the first point of concern from a
designer’s viewpoint. For example, if the signal bandwidth is 1 MHz, a~THz carrier
frequency may not be necessary. On the other hand,if the data rate required is Terabit per
second (Tbps), which corresponds to THz of bandwidth, obviously a radio frequency of 2.5
GHz as carrier frequency would not be sufficient.
2. Attenuation:The communication channel may have a different attenuation at different
carrier frequency; it may support the transmission of some frequencies, while completely
suppressing others. Atmosphere, for instance, has different attenuation for different carrier
frequencies. So, in case of a free space communication link, one should check the attenuation
spectrum (attenuation as a function of frequency) and choose the frequency which has the
lowest attenuation, so that the power required in transporting the information is minimum.
3. Topology: The topology of the link is another design concern. Depending on the
requirement, one may set up a point-to-point link, or a multicasting link.
4. Ease of deployment/cost: This is one of the most important constraints for the design of a
link. To understand the challenges in deployment, consider a point-to-point link in a hilly
terrain, where laying optical fiber can be challenging. A line-of-sight microwave link would
be much more practical. Availability of components and their cost is another related concern.
One may come up with a novel channel with low attenuation at a particular carrier frequency,
but the sources and detectors for that frequency may not be available at a low cost, which
would make the solution impractical.
5. Security: Data security is also an important concern, since through internet, we regularly
share some sensitive information (passwords, credit card details and so on.). It may be
possible to tap the transmitted information from an insecure channel. For example, a coaxial
line start to radiate at higher frequencies, which means that an antenna placed nearby can
pick up the data being transported, which may not be acceptable.There may be some cases
where this kind of channel security may not be a concern. For example, in case of FM radio,
the information is broadcasted, and it is meant to be received by anyone having a suitable
receiver. But the same may not be the case for, say, a link connecting one bank to the other.

The International Telecommunication Union – Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-

T) has recommended the range of carrier frequencies, ranging from 1 kHz to 1000 THz, for
various applications. Please take note that these are not to be confused with the signal bandwidth,
these are the carrier frequencies, which can be adopted depending upon the application. For
example, telegraph and submarine cables operate with carrier frequencies in the range
~kHz,while the short wave radioapplications (FM radio, TV, cellular) operate in the MHz-GHz
range. Microwave applications use GHz range of frequencies. Then there is a gap in the
frequencies in the THz range, beyond which there are the optical frequencies in 100s of THz
range.

We can do a small exercise here. The wavelength of visible light ranges from 400-800 nm. We
take the example of green colour, which has a wavelength of 532 nm (approximately 500 nm).
𝑐𝑐 3×10^8
The carrier frequency for green colour is calculated as follows. 𝑐𝑐 = 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 ⇒ 𝑓𝑓 = 𝜆𝜆 = 500×10 −9 =
600 THz. Green, or blue-green, is one of the favorite wavelengths for underwater
communication, where submarines communicate with a buoy, or among each other. This is
because the channel attenuation is minimum for the frequency corresponding to that color. But in
an optical fiber, green has a very large attenuation.

Here, we have represented the carrier frequencies also in terms of the corresponding
wavelengths. The visible optical frequencies correspond to wavelengths of 100s of nm, while for
microwave signals, wavelength is in cms. There is another class of carrier frequency called
millimeter waves, which is gaining popularity because the upcoming 5G standards in wireless
communication are interested in using millimeter waves as the carrier frequencies. Currently the
cellular services use 2.5 GHz / 2.8 GHz as the carrier frequency, but the next generation wireless
communication systems are talking about using higher carrier frequencies, such as 26 or 28 GHz,
depending on the country, and these come under the class of millimeter waves. Microwaves are
conventionally used for military communication, and short/long wave are used for radio
communications. Long wave is used for submarine communication.

This table from ITU-T enlists the carrier frequencies to be used to ensure compatibility between
various applications. RF is classified as frequency range between 3 Hz and 3 GHz, which
includes bands such as UHF, VHF, MF, HF etc. Microwave frequencies, used for satellite and
radar systems, range from 3 GHz to 3 THz actually. The range 3 – 30 GHz is quite interesting,
since most of the radars operating today, such as atmospheric/weather radars, synthetic aperture
radars, military communication operate in this range. They operate under S, C, X, Ku, K, Ka,
bands. Optical frequencies start beyond 3 THz which are again specified in terms of bands as per
ITU standards. These bands as specified in terms of wavelength instead of frequencies, because
the frequency values are quite large in this range, and it is more convenient to express them as
wavelengths.
The wavelength range 1260-1360 nm is the original communication band known as O-band,
followed by the E-band. The most conventional band is C-band, spanning from 1530 to 1565 nm,
which corresponds to a carrier frequency of~200 THz for optical communication, which results
in a large allowed bandwidth. Long bands (L-band) in the range 1565 to 1625 nm are also being
used, but the Ultra-long band (U-band) is currently not used. Recently, the capacity in optical
fiber link has also been saturating, so the current ongoing trend is to explore the other bands in
optical communication, and to find out the cost-effective sources and detectors for these
wavelengths.

The choice of the carrier frequency depends on the channel attenuation. Let us look at the
variation of atmospheric attenuation in the range 1-350 GHz, as shown by the red line. The y-
axis is marked as specific attenuation, which means attenuation per unit length in dB/km. It is
minimal, in fact less than .01 dB/km up to 10 GHz - which means atmospheric loss is really low
from 1 GHz to ~8-9 GHz. This is why the conventional cellular bands operate in the range of 3-
3.5 GHz, and are now scaling to 6 GHz in case of 5G standards. The orange trace represents the
absorption of water vapor due to molecular resonances. When excited with frequencies close to
the resonance, the channel exhibits absorption, which limits the range of carrier
frequencies.Similarly, the blue trace represents the absorption spectrum of oxygen. Such
absorption peaks restrict the range of carrier frequencies for free-space radio communication,
which in turn limits the bandwidth as well.Considering the cellular operating frequency of 3.5
GHz, the largest allowed bandwidthwould be 300 MHz, but typically,20-30 MHz is used for
seamless error free operation in cellular band.

In order to carry larger bandwidth, the carrier frequency needs to be increased, which is not
possible with free-space, so copper cables are used. The plot shows the attenuation
characteristics of various types of copper cables. In case of a conventional coaxial line, the
attenuation varies from~100 to ~1000 dB/km for frequency of operation varying from 100 kHz
to 100 MHz, which causes a very large change in the magnitude of the signal strength. For
transmitting such large carrier frequencies, special waveguides have to be designed with specific
materials, dielectrics, and specific dimensions for a particular range of frequencies. Examples of
such waveguides are WG 16, WG 10.

For further increasing the bandwidths, we need to use optical bands as carrier frequencies and
optical fibers as the channel. In case of optical fibers, this plot has to be interpreted differently.
The frequency ranges now represent the signal bandwidth and not the carrier frequencies.
Obviously, a 10 MHz baseband signal cannot be transmitted in an optical fiber, since it would
not be guided in the fiber. Thus the carrier signal corresponds to the optical bands (~1550 nm).

The attenuation of the optical fiber remains the same, irrespective of whether the signal
bandwidth is 100 kHz or 10 GHz. Thus, unlike copper cables, the bandwidth in case of optical
fibers is not limited because of the transmission line losses. There may be other factors that limit
the bandwidth of an optical fiber, which we will deal with later. Although the optical fiber can
support a carrier frequency of 200 THz, it is still not feasible to successfully transmit ~200 GHz
bandwidths in an optical fiber. But the challenge is not because of the fiber characteristics, it is
because of the limitations of the transmitter and the receiver, about which we will learn later. It is
critical to understand these limitations to choose a suitable transmitter and receiver while
designing a fiber optic communication link.