0% found this document useful (0 votes)
9 views11 pages

18BCS62C U5

The document discusses the proof of a logical proposition and the concepts of soundness and completeness in deductive systems, emphasizing that a complete system can prove all true statements while a sound system ensures all theorems are true. It contrasts procedural and declarative knowledge, explaining how logic programming, particularly in PROLOG, represents knowledge through logical assertions and rules. Additionally, it covers forward and backward reasoning in problem-solving, the characteristics and components of expert systems, and the importance of knowledge acquisition and representation in artificial intelligence.
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
0% found this document useful (0 votes)
9 views11 pages

18BCS62C U5

The document discusses the proof of a logical proposition and the concepts of soundness and completeness in deductive systems, emphasizing that a complete system can prove all true statements while a sound system ensures all theorems are true. It contrasts procedural and declarative knowledge, explaining how logic programming, particularly in PROLOG, represents knowledge through logical assertions and rules. Additionally, it covers forward and backward reasoning in problem-solving, the characteristics and components of expert systems, and the importance of knowledge acquisition and representation in artificial intelligence.
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 11

UNIT-V

For example, here is a proof of the proposition (A ⇒ B ⇒ C) ⇒ (A ∧ B ⇒ C).

The final step in the proof is to derive (A ⇒ B ⇒ C) ⇒ (A ∧ B ⇒ C) from (A ∧ B ⇒ C), which is


done using the rule (⇒-intro), discharging the assumption [x : A ⇒ B ⇒ C]. To see how this rule
generates the proof step, substitute for the metavariables P, Q, x in the rule as follows: P = (A ⇒
B ⇒ C), Q = (A ∧ B ⇒ C), and x = x. The immediately previous step uses the same rule, but with
a different substitution: P = A ∧ B, Q = C, x = y.
The proof tree for this example has the following form, with the proved proposition at the root
and axioms and assumptions at the leaves.

A proposition that has a complete proof in a deductive system is called a theorem of that system.
Soundness and Completeness
A measure of a deductive system's power is whether it is powerful enough to prove all true
statements. A deductive system is said to be complete if all true statements are theorems (have
proofs in the system). For propositional logic and natural deduction, this means that all
tautologies must have natural deduction proofs. Conversely, a deductive system is
called sound if all theorems are true. The proof rules we have given above are in fact sound and
complete for propositional logic: every theorem is a tautology, and every tautology is a theorem.
Finding a proof for a given tautology can be difficult. But once the proof is found, checking that
it is indeed a proof is completely mechanical, requiring no intelligence or insight whatsoever. It
is therefore a very strong argument that the thing proved is in fact true.
We can also make writing proofs less tedious by adding more rules that provide reasoning
shortcuts. These rules are sound if there is a way to convert a proof using them into a proof using
the original rules. Such added rules are called admissible.

Procedural versus Declarative Knowledge


We have discussed various search techniques in previous units. Now we would consider a set of
rules that represent,
1. Knowledge about relationships in the world and
2. Knowledge about how to solve the problem using the content of the rules.
Procedural vs Declarative Knowledge
Procedural Knowledge
 A representation in which the control information that is necessary to use the knowledge
is embedded in the knowledge itself for e.g. computer programs, directions, and recipes;
these indicate specific use or implementation;
 The real difference between declarative and procedural views of knowledge lies in where
control information reside.
For example, consider the following
Man (Marcus)
Man (Caesar)
Person (Cleopatra)
∀x: Man(x) → Person(x)
Now, try to answer the question. ?Person(y)
The knowledge base justifies any of the following answers.
Y=Marcus
Y=Caesar
Y=Cleopatra
 We get more than one value that satisfies the predicate.
 If only one value needed, then the answer to the question will depend on the order in
which the assertions examined during the search for a response.
 If the assertions declarative then they do not themselves say anything about how they will
be examined. In case of procedural representation, they say how they will examine.
Declarative Knowledge
 A statement in which knowledge specified, but the use to which that knowledge is to be
put is not given.
 For example, laws, people’s name; these are the facts which can stand alone, not
dependent on other knowledge;
 So to use declarative representation, we must have a program that explains what is to do
with the knowledge and how.
 For example, a set of logical assertions can combine with a resolution theorem prover to
give a complete program for solving problems but in some cases, the logical assertions
can view as a program rather than data to a program.
 Hence the implication statements define the legitimate reasoning paths and automatic
assertions provide the starting points of those paths.
 These paths define the execution paths which is similar to the ‘if then else “in traditional
programming.
 So logical assertions can view as a procedural representation of knowledge.

Logic Programming – Representing Knowledge Using Rules


 Logic programming is a programming paradigm in which logical assertions viewed as
programs.
 These are several logic programming systems, PROLOG is one of them.
 A PROLOG program consists of several logical assertions where each is a horn clause
i.e. a clause with at most one positive literal.
 Ex : P, P V Q, P → Q
 The facts are represented on Horn Clause for two reasons.
1. Because of a uniform representation, a simple and efficient interpreter can write.
2. The logic of Horn Clause decidable.
 Also, The first two differences are the fact that PROLOG programs are actually sets of
Horn clause that have been transformed as follows:-
1. If the Horn Clause contains no negative literal then leave it as it is.
2. Also, Otherwise rewrite the Horn clauses as an implication, combining all of the
negative literals into the antecedent of the implications and the single positive
literal into the consequent.
 Moreover, This procedure causes a clause which originally consisted of a disjunction of
literals (one of them was positive) to be transformed into a single implication whose
antecedent is a conjunction universally quantified.
 But when we apply this transformation, any variables that occurred in negative literals
and so now occur in the antecedent become existentially quantified, while the variables in
the consequent are still universally quantified.
For example the PROLOG clause P(x): – Q(x, y) is equal to logical expression ∀x: ∃y: Q (x,
y) → P(x).
 The difference between the logic and PROLOG representation is that the PROLOG
interpretation has a fixed control strategy. And so, the assertions in the PROLOG
program define a particular search path to answer any question.
 But, the logical assertions define only the set of answers but not about how to choose
among those answers if there is more than one.
Consider the following example:
1. Logical representation
∀x : pet(x) ۸ small (x) → apartmentpet(x)
∀x : cat(x) ۸ dog(x) → pet(x)
∀x : poodle (x) → dog (x) ۸ small (x)
poodle (fluffy)
2. Prolog representation
apartmentpet (x) : pet(x), small (x)
pet (x): cat (x)
pet (x): dog(x)
dog(x): poodle (x)
small (x): poodle(x)
poodle (fluffy)

Forward versus Backward Reasoning


Forward versus Backward Reasoning
A search procedure must find a path between initial and goal states.
There are two directions in which a search process could proceed.
The two types of search are:
1. Forward search which starts from the start state
2. Backward search that starts from the goal state
The production system views the forward and backward as symmetric processes.
Consider a game of playing 8 puzzles. The rules defined are
Square 1 empty and square 2 contains tile n. →
 Also, Square 2 empty and square 1 contains the tile n.
Square 1 empty Square 4 contains tile n. →
 Also, Square 4 empty and Square 1 contains tile n.
We can solve the problem in 2 ways:
1. Reason forward from the initial state
 Step 1. Begin building a tree of move sequences by starting with the initial configuration
at the root of the tree.
 Step 2. Generate the next level of the tree by finding all rules whose left-hand side
matches against the root node. The right-hand side is used to create new configurations.
 Step 3. Generate the next level by considering the nodes in the previous level and
applying it to all rules whose left-hand side match.
2. Reasoning backward from the goal states:
 Step 1. Begin building a tree of move sequences by starting with the goal node
configuration at the root of the tree.
 Step 2. Generate the next level of the tree by finding all rules whose right-hand side
matches against the root node. The left-hand side used to create new configurations.
 Step 3. Generate the next level by considering the nodes in the previous level and
applying it to all rules whose right-hand side match.
 So, The same rules can use in both cases.
 Also, In forwarding reasoning, the left-hand sides of the rules matched against the current
state and right sides used to generate the new state.
 Moreover, In backward reasoning, the right-hand sides of the rules matched against the
current state and left sides are used to generate the new state.
There are four factors influencing the type of reasoning. They are,
1. Are there more possible start or goal state? We move from smaller set of sets to the
length.
2. In what direction is the branching factor greater? We proceed in the direction with the
lower branching factor.
3. Will the program be asked to justify its reasoning process to a user? If, so then it is
selected since it is very close to the way in which the user thinks.
4. What kind of event is going to trigger a problem-solving episode? If it is the arrival of a
new factor, the forward reasoning makes sense. If it is a query to which a response is
desired, backward reasoning is more natural.
Example 1 of Forward versus Backward Reasoning
 It is easier to drive from an unfamiliar place from home, rather than from home to an
unfamiliar place. Also, If you consider a home as starting place an unfamiliar place as a
goal then we have to backtrack from unfamiliar place to home.
Example 2 of Forward versus Backward Reasoning
 Consider a problem of symbolic integration. Moreover, The problem space is a set of
formulas, which contains integral expressions. Here START is equal to the given formula
with some integrals. GOAL is equivalent to the expression of the formula without any
integral. Here we start from the formula with some integrals and proceed to an integral
free expression rather than starting from an integral free expression.
Example 3 of Forward versus Backward Reasoning
 The third factor is nothing but deciding whether the reasoning process can justify its
reasoning. If it justifies then it can apply. For example, doctors are usually unwilling to
accept any advice from diagnostics process because it cannot explain its reasoning.
Example 4 of Forward versus Backward Reasoning
 Prolog is an example of backward chaining rule system. In Prolog rules restricted to Horn
clauses. This allows for rapid indexing because all the rules for deducing a given fact
share the same rule head. Rules matched with unification procedure. Unification tries to
find a set of bindings for variables to equate a sub-goal with the head of some rule. Rules
in the Prolog program matched in the order in which they appear.
Combining Forward and Backward Reasoning
 Instead of searching either forward or backward, you can search both simultaneously.
 Also, That is, start forward from a starting state and backward from a goal state
simultaneously until the paths meet.
 This strategy called Bi-directional search. The following figure shows the reason for a
Bidirectional search to be ineffective.

Forward versus Backward Reasoning


 Also, The two searches may pass each other resulting in more work.
 Based on the form of the rules one can decide whether the same rules can apply to both
forward and backward reasoning.
 Moreover, If left-hand side and right of the rule contain pure assertions then the rule can
reverse.
 And so the same rule can apply to both types of reasoning.
 If the right side of the rule contains an arbitrary procedure then the rule cannot reverse.
 So, In this case, while writing the rule the commitment to a direction of reasoning must
make.

Symbolic Reasoning Under Uncertainty


Symbolic Reasoning
 The reasoning is the act of deriving a conclusion from certain properties using a given
methodology.
 The reasoning is a process of thinking; reasoning is logically arguing; reasoning is
drawing the inference.
 When a system is required to do something, that it has not been explicitly told how to do,
it must reason. It must figure out what it needs to know from what it already knows.
Training sets used in artificial intelligence, machine learning, genetic programming, intelligent
systems, and statistics.
In all these fields, a training set has much the same role and often used in conjunction with a test
set.
Testing set
A test set is a set of data used in various areas of information science to assess the strength and
utility of a predictive relationship.
Moreover, Test sets are used in artificial intelligence, machine learning, genetic programming,
and statistics. In all these fields, a test set has much the same role.
Accuracy of classifier: Supervised learning
In the fields of science, engineering, industry, and statistics. The accuracy of a measurement
system is the degree of closeness of measurements of a quantity to that quantity’s actual (true)
value.
Sensitivity analysis: Supervised learning
Similarly, Local Sensitivity as correlation coefficients and partial derivatives can only use, if the
correlation between input and output is linear.
Regression: Supervised learning
In statistics, regression analysis is a statistical process for estimating the relationships among
variables.
Moreover, It includes many techniques for modeling and analyzing several variables. When the
focus on the relationship between a dependent variable and one or more independent variables.
More specifically, regression analysis helps one understand how the typical value of the
dependent variable (or ‘criterion variable’) changes when any one of the independent variables
varied. Moreover, While the other independent variables held fixed.

Expert systems:
Expert system = knowledge + problem-solving methods. ... A knowledge base that captures
the domain-specific knowledge and an inference engine that consists of algorithms for
manipulating the knowledge represented in the knowledge base to solve a problem presented to
the system.
Expert systems (ES) are one of the prominent research domains of AI. It is introduced by the
researchers at Stanford University, Computer Science Department.

What are Expert Systems?

The expert systems are the computer applications developed to solve complex problems in a
particular domain, at the level of extra-ordinary human intelligence and expertise.

Characteristics of Expert Systems


 High performance
 Understandable
 Reliable
 Highly responsive
Capabilities of Expert Systems
The expert systems are capable of −
 Advising
 Instructing and assisting human in decision making
 Demonstrating
 Deriving a solution
 Diagnosing
 Explaining
 Interpreting input
 Predicting results
 Justifying the conclusion
 Suggesting alternative options to a problem
They are incapable of −
 Substituting human decision makers
 Possessing human capabilities
 Producing accurate output for inadequate knowledge base
 Refining their own knowledge
Components of Expert Systems
The components of ES include −
 Knowledge Base
 Inference Engine
 User Interface
Let us see them one by one briefly −

Knowledge Base
It contains domain-specific and high-quality knowledge. Knowledge is required to exhibit
intelligence. The success of any ES majorly depends upon the collection of highly accurate and
precise knowledge.
What is Knowledge?
The data is collection of facts. The information is organized as data and facts about the task
domain. Data, information, and past experience combined together are termed as knowledge.
Components of Knowledge Base
The knowledge base of an ES is a store of both, factual and heuristic knowledge.
 Factual Knowledge − It is the information widely accepted by the Knowledge Engineers
and scholars in the task domain.
 Heuristic Knowledge − It is about practice, accurate judgement, one’s ability of
evaluation, and guessing.
Knowledge representation
It is the method used to organize and formalize the knowledge in the knowledge base. It is in the
form of IF-THEN-ELSE rules.
Knowledge Acquisition
The success of any expert system majorly depends on the quality, completeness, and accuracy of
the information stored in the knowledge base.
The knowledge base is formed by readings from various experts, scholars, and the Knowledge
Engineers. The knowledge engineer is a person with the qualities of empathy, quick learning,
and case analyzing skills.
He acquires information from subject expert by recording, interviewing, and observing him at
work, etc. He then categorizes and organizes the information in a meaningful way, in the form of
IF-THEN-ELSE rules, to be used by interference machine. The knowledge engineer also
monitors the development of the ES.
Inference Engine
Use of efficient procedures and rules by the Inference Engine is essential in deducting a correct,
flawless solution.
In case of knowledge-based ES, the Inference Engine acquires and manipulates the knowledge
from the knowledge base to arrive at a particular solution.
In case of rule based ES, it −
 Applies rules repeatedly to the facts, which are obtained from earlier rule application.
 Adds new knowledge into the knowledge base if required.
 Resolves rules conflict when multiple rules are applicable to a particular case.
To recommend a solution, the Inference Engine uses the following strategies −
 Forward Chaining
 Backward Chaining
Forward Chaining
It is a strategy of an expert system to answer the question, “What can happen next?”
Here, the Inference Engine follows the chain of conditions and derivations and finally deduces
the outcome. It considers all the facts and rules, and sorts them before concluding to a solution.
This strategy is followed for working on conclusion, result, or effect. For example, prediction of
share market status as an effect of changes in interest rates.
Backward Chaining
With this strategy, an expert system finds out the answer to the question, “Why this happened?”
On the basis of what has already happened, the Inference Engine tries to find out which
conditions could have happened in the past for this result. This strategy is followed for finding
out cause or reason. For example, diagnosis of blood cancer in humans.

User Interface
User interface provides interaction between user of the ES and the ES itself. It is generally
Natural Language Processing so as to be used by the user who is well-versed in the task domain.
The user of the ES need not be necessarily an expert in Artificial Intelligence.
It explains how the ES has arrived at a particular recommendation. The explanation may appear
in the following forms −
 Natural language displayed on screen.
 Verbal narrations in natural language.
 Listing of rule numbers displayed on the screen.
The user interface makes it easy to trace the credibility of the deductions.
Requirements of Efficient ES User Interface
 It should help users to accomplish their goals in shortest possible way.
 It should be designed to work for user’s existing or desired work practices.
 Its technology should be adaptable to user’s requirements; not the other way round.
 It should make efficient use of user input.
Expert Systems Limitations
No technology can offer easy and complete solution. Large systems are costly, require
significant development time, and computer resources. ESs have their limitations which include

 Limitations of the technology
 Difficult knowledge acquisition
 ES are difficult to maintain
 High development costs
Applications of Expert System
The following table shows where ES can be applied.
Application Description

Design Domain Camera lens design, automobile design.

Diagnosis Systems to deduce cause of disease from observed


Medical Domain
data, conduction medical operations on humans.

Comparing data continuously with observed system or with


Monitoring Systems prescribed behavior such as leakage monitoring in long
petroleum pipeline.

Process Control Systems Controlling a physical process based on monitoring.

Knowledge Domain Finding out faults in vehicles, computers.

Detection of possible fraud, suspicious transactions, stock


Finance/Commerce
market trading, Airline scheduling, cargo scheduling.
Expert System Technology
There are several levels of ES technologies available. Expert systems technologies include −
 Expert System Development Environment − The ES development environment includes
hardware and tools. They are −
o Workstations, minicomputers, mainframes.
o High level Symbolic Programming Languages such as LISt Programming (LISP)
and PROgrammation en LOGique (PROLOG).
o Large databases.
 Tools − They reduce the effort and cost involved in developing an expert system to large
extent.
o Powerful editors and debugging tools with multi-windows.
o They provide rapid prototyping
o Have Inbuilt definitions of model, knowledge representation, and inference
design.
 Shells − A shell is nothing but an expert system without knowledge base. A shell
provides the developers with knowledge acquisition, inference engine, user interface, and
explanation facility. For example, few shells are given below −
o Java Expert System Shell (JESS) that provides fully developed Java API for
creating an expert system.
o Vidwan, a shell developed at the National Centre for Software Technology,
Mumbai in 1993. It enables knowledge encoding in the form of IF-THEN rules.
Development of Expert Systems: General Steps
The process of ES development is iterative. Steps in developing the ES include −
Identify Problem Domain
 The problem must be suitable for an expert system to solve it.
 Find the experts in task domain for the ES project.
 Establish cost-effectiveness of the system.
Design the System
 Identify the ES Technology
 Know and establish the degree of integration with the other systems and databases.
 Realize how the concepts can represent the domain knowledge best.
Develop the Prototype
From Knowledge Base: The knowledge engineer works to −
 Acquire domain knowledge from the expert.
 Represent it in the form of If-THEN-ELSE rules.
Test and Refine the Prototype
 The knowledge engineer uses sample cases to test the prototype for any deficiencies in
performance.
 End users test the prototypes of the ES.
Develop and Complete the ES
 Test and ensure the interaction of the ES with all elements of its environment, including
end users, databases, and other information systems.
 Document the ES project well.
 Train the user to use ES.
Maintain the ES
 Keep the knowledge base up-to-date by regular review and update.
 Cater for new interfaces with other information systems, as those systems evolve.
Benefits of Expert Systems
 Availability − They are easily available due to mass production of software.
 Less Production Cost − Production cost is reasonable. This makes them affordable.
 Speed − They offer great speed. They reduce the amount of work an individual puts in.
 Less Error Rate − Error rate is low as compared to human errors.
 Reducing Risk − They can work in the environment dangerous to humans.
 Steady response − They work steadily without getting motional, tensed or fatigued.

Expert System.

DEFINITION - An expert system is a computer program that simulates the judgement and
behavior of a human or an organization that has expert knowledge and experience in a particular
field. Typically, such a system contains a knowledge base containing accumulated experience
and a set of rules for applying the knowledge base to each particular situation that is described to
the program. Sophisticated expert systems can be enhanced with additions to the knowledge base
or to the set of rules.

Among the best-known expert systems have been those that play chess and that assist in medical
diagnosis.

An expert system is software that attempts to provide an answer to a problem, or clarify


uncertainties where normally one or more human experts would need to be consulted. Expert
systems are most common in a specific problem domain, and is a traditional application and/or

You might also like