18BCS62C U5
18BCS62C U5
A proposition that has a complete proof in a deductive system is called a theorem of that system.
Soundness and Completeness
A measure of a deductive system's power is whether it is powerful enough to prove all true
statements. A deductive system is said to be complete if all true statements are theorems (have
proofs in the system). For propositional logic and natural deduction, this means that all
tautologies must have natural deduction proofs. Conversely, a deductive system is
called sound if all theorems are true. The proof rules we have given above are in fact sound and
complete for propositional logic: every theorem is a tautology, and every tautology is a theorem.
Finding a proof for a given tautology can be difficult. But once the proof is found, checking that
it is indeed a proof is completely mechanical, requiring no intelligence or insight whatsoever. It
is therefore a very strong argument that the thing proved is in fact true.
We can also make writing proofs less tedious by adding more rules that provide reasoning
shortcuts. These rules are sound if there is a way to convert a proof using them into a proof using
the original rules. Such added rules are called admissible.
Expert systems:
Expert system = knowledge + problem-solving methods. ... A knowledge base that captures
the domain-specific knowledge and an inference engine that consists of algorithms for
manipulating the knowledge represented in the knowledge base to solve a problem presented to
the system.
Expert systems (ES) are one of the prominent research domains of AI. It is introduced by the
researchers at Stanford University, Computer Science Department.
The expert systems are the computer applications developed to solve complex problems in a
particular domain, at the level of extra-ordinary human intelligence and expertise.
Knowledge Base
It contains domain-specific and high-quality knowledge. Knowledge is required to exhibit
intelligence. The success of any ES majorly depends upon the collection of highly accurate and
precise knowledge.
What is Knowledge?
The data is collection of facts. The information is organized as data and facts about the task
domain. Data, information, and past experience combined together are termed as knowledge.
Components of Knowledge Base
The knowledge base of an ES is a store of both, factual and heuristic knowledge.
Factual Knowledge − It is the information widely accepted by the Knowledge Engineers
and scholars in the task domain.
Heuristic Knowledge − It is about practice, accurate judgement, one’s ability of
evaluation, and guessing.
Knowledge representation
It is the method used to organize and formalize the knowledge in the knowledge base. It is in the
form of IF-THEN-ELSE rules.
Knowledge Acquisition
The success of any expert system majorly depends on the quality, completeness, and accuracy of
the information stored in the knowledge base.
The knowledge base is formed by readings from various experts, scholars, and the Knowledge
Engineers. The knowledge engineer is a person with the qualities of empathy, quick learning,
and case analyzing skills.
He acquires information from subject expert by recording, interviewing, and observing him at
work, etc. He then categorizes and organizes the information in a meaningful way, in the form of
IF-THEN-ELSE rules, to be used by interference machine. The knowledge engineer also
monitors the development of the ES.
Inference Engine
Use of efficient procedures and rules by the Inference Engine is essential in deducting a correct,
flawless solution.
In case of knowledge-based ES, the Inference Engine acquires and manipulates the knowledge
from the knowledge base to arrive at a particular solution.
In case of rule based ES, it −
Applies rules repeatedly to the facts, which are obtained from earlier rule application.
Adds new knowledge into the knowledge base if required.
Resolves rules conflict when multiple rules are applicable to a particular case.
To recommend a solution, the Inference Engine uses the following strategies −
Forward Chaining
Backward Chaining
Forward Chaining
It is a strategy of an expert system to answer the question, “What can happen next?”
Here, the Inference Engine follows the chain of conditions and derivations and finally deduces
the outcome. It considers all the facts and rules, and sorts them before concluding to a solution.
This strategy is followed for working on conclusion, result, or effect. For example, prediction of
share market status as an effect of changes in interest rates.
Backward Chaining
With this strategy, an expert system finds out the answer to the question, “Why this happened?”
On the basis of what has already happened, the Inference Engine tries to find out which
conditions could have happened in the past for this result. This strategy is followed for finding
out cause or reason. For example, diagnosis of blood cancer in humans.
User Interface
User interface provides interaction between user of the ES and the ES itself. It is generally
Natural Language Processing so as to be used by the user who is well-versed in the task domain.
The user of the ES need not be necessarily an expert in Artificial Intelligence.
It explains how the ES has arrived at a particular recommendation. The explanation may appear
in the following forms −
Natural language displayed on screen.
Verbal narrations in natural language.
Listing of rule numbers displayed on the screen.
The user interface makes it easy to trace the credibility of the deductions.
Requirements of Efficient ES User Interface
It should help users to accomplish their goals in shortest possible way.
It should be designed to work for user’s existing or desired work practices.
Its technology should be adaptable to user’s requirements; not the other way round.
It should make efficient use of user input.
Expert Systems Limitations
No technology can offer easy and complete solution. Large systems are costly, require
significant development time, and computer resources. ESs have their limitations which include
−
Limitations of the technology
Difficult knowledge acquisition
ES are difficult to maintain
High development costs
Applications of Expert System
The following table shows where ES can be applied.
Application Description
Expert System.
DEFINITION - An expert system is a computer program that simulates the judgement and
behavior of a human or an organization that has expert knowledge and experience in a particular
field. Typically, such a system contains a knowledge base containing accumulated experience
and a set of rules for applying the knowledge base to each particular situation that is described to
the program. Sophisticated expert systems can be enhanced with additions to the knowledge base
or to the set of rules.
Among the best-known expert systems have been those that play chess and that assist in medical
diagnosis.