Chapter 2

Network Models

Faisal M. Uddin Independent University Bangladesh (IUB)

Data Communication and Computer Networks : CSE 316
 Topics
• Protocol Layers
○ Advantages of Protocol Layers
○ Principles of Protocol Layers
• Logical Connection
• TCP/IP Protocol Suite
• Layered Architecture
• Physical Layer • Encapsulation and Decapsulatioon
• Data Link Layer • Addressing
• Network Layer • Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
• Transport Layer • The OSI Model
• Application Layer • Seven Layers of OSI Model
• OSI verses TCP/IP
• Lake of OSI Model

Faisal M. Uddin Independent University Bangladesh (IUB)

Data Communication and Computer Networks : CSE 316
Protocol Layering

• In data communication and networking, a protocol defines

the rules that both the sender and receiver and all
intermediate devices need to follow to be able to
communicate effectively.
• When communication is simple, we may need only one
simple protocol.
• When the communication is complex, we may need to
divide the task between different layers, in which case we
need a protocol at each layer, or protocol layering.
Sample Scenarios
Sample Scenarios
Advantages of Protocol Layering

• Protocol layering enables us to divide a complex task into several

smaller and simpler tasks.
• Protocol of one layer can be changed without touching the other
layers
• Layering allows us to separate the services from the
implementation. A layer needs to be able to receive a set of
services from the lower layer and to give the services to the upper
layer; we don’t care about how the layer is implemented.
• Communication does not always use only two end systems; there are
intermediate systems that need only some layers, but not all
layers. If we did not use protocol layering, we would have to make
each intermediate system as complex as the end systems, which
makes the whole system more expensive
Principles of Protocol Layering
• First Principle:
• The first principle dictates that if we want bidirectional
communication, we need to make each layer so that it is able to
perform two opposite tasks, one in each direction.
• For example, the third layer task is to listen (in one direction) and talk (in
the other direction).
• The second layer needs to be able to encrypt and decrypt. The first layer
needs to send and receive mail.
• Second Principle:
• The second principle that we need to follow in protocol layering is that
the two objects under each layer at both sites should be identical.
• For example, the object under layer 3 at both sites should be a plaintext
letter.
• The object under layer 2 at both sites should be a ciphertext letter. The
object under layer 1 at both sites should be a piece of mail.
Logical Connections
• We can think about logical connection between each layer. This means that we
have layer-to-layer communication.
• Maria and Anny can think that there is a logical (imaginary) connection at
each layer through which they can send the object created from that layer.
• We will see that the concept of logical connection will help us better
understand the task of layering we encounter in data communication and
networking.
 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
• Protocol Suit is a set of protocols organized in different layers. TCP/IP
(Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is a protocol suite used in the
Internet today.
• It is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, each of which provides a
specific functionality. The term hierarchical means that each upper level protocol is
supported by the services provided by one or more lower level protocols.
• The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as four software layers built upon
the hardware.
• Today, however, TCP/IP is thought of as a five-layer model.
Layered Architecture
Layered Architecture
Layered Architecture
Physical Layer

• Physical layer is responsible for carrying individual bits in a frame across

the link.
• Although the physical layer is the lowest level in the TCP/IP protocol
suite, the communication between two devices at the physical layer is still
a logical communication because there is another, hidden layer, the
transmission media, under the physical layer.
• Two devices are connected by a transmission medium (cable or air).
• We need to know that the transmission medium does not carry bits; it
carries electrical or optical signals.
• So the bits received in a frame from the data-link layer are transformed and
sent through the transmission media, but we can think that the logical
unit between two physical layers in two devices is a bit.
• There are several protocols that transform a bit to a signal.
Data-Link Layer
• Internet is made up of several links (LANs and WANs) connected by routers.
• There may be several overlapping sets of links that a datagram can travel from the host to the
destination.
• The routers are responsible for choosing the best links.
• However, when the next link to travel is determined by the router, the data-link layer is
responsible for taking the datagram and moving it across the link.
• The link can be a wired LAN with a link-layer switch, a wireless LAN, a wired WAN, or a
wireless WAN.
• We can also have different protocols used with any link type.
• In each case, the data-link layer is responsible for moving the packet through the link.
• TCP/IP does not define any specific protocol for the data-link layer.
• It supports all the standard and proprietary protocols.
• Any protocol that can take the datagram and carry it through the link suffices for the
network layer.
• The data-link layer takes a datagram and encapsulates it in a packet called a frame.
• Each link-layer protocol may provide a different service.
• Some link-layer protocols provide complete error detection and correction, some provide
only error correction.
Network Layer
• The network layer is responsible for creating a connection between the source computer and
the destination computer.
• The communication at the network layer is host-to-host. However, since there can be
several routers from the source to the destination, the routers in the path are responsible for
choosing the best route for each packet.
• Network layer is responsible for host-to-host communication and routing the packet
through possible routes.
• The network layer in the Internet includes the main protocol, Internet Protocol (IP),
that defines the format of the packet, called a datagram at the network layer.
• IP also defines the format and the structure of addresses used in this layer.
• IP is also responsible for routing a packet from its source to its destination, which is achieved
by each router forwarding the datagram to the next router in its path.
• IP is a connectionless protocol that provides no flow control, no error control, and no
congestion control services.
• This means that if any of theses services is required for an application, the application should
rely only on the transport-layer protocol.
• The network layer also includes unicast (one-to-one) and multicast (one-to-many) routing
protocols.
• A routing protocol does not take part in routing (it is the responsibility of IP), but it creates
forwarding tables for routers to help them in the routing process.
Transport Layer
• The logical connection at the transport layer is also end-to-end.
• The transport layer at the source host gets the message from the application layer,
encapsulates it in a transport layer packet (called a segment or a user datagram in
different protocols) and sends it, through the logical (imaginary) connection, to the transport
layer at the destination host.
• In other words, the transport layer is responsible for giving services to the application
layer: to get a message from an application program running on the source host and
deliver it to the corresponding application program on the destination host.
• We have more than one protocol in the transport layer, which means that each
application program can use the protocol that best matches its requirement
• The main protocol, Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), is a connection-oriented protocol
that first establishes a logical connection between transport layers at two hosts before
transferring data.
• It creates a logical pipe between two TCPs for transferring a stream of bytes.
• TCP provides flow control, error control, and congestion control to reduce the loss of
segments due to congestion in the network
• The other common protocol, User Datagram Protocol (UDP), is a connectionless protocol
that transmits user datagrams without first creating a logical connection.
• UDP is a simple protocol that does not provide flow, error, or congestion control.
Application Layer
• The logical connection between the two application layers is end-to-end.
• The two application layers exchange messages between each other as though there were
a bridge between the two layers.
• However, we should know that the communication is done through all the layers.
• Communication at the application layer is between two processes (two programs running at
this layer). To communicate, a process sends a request to the other process and receives a
response.
• Process-to-process communication is the duty of the application layer.
• The application layer in the Internet includes many predefined protocols, but a user can also
create a pair of processes to be run at the two hosts
• The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a vehicle for accessing the World Wide Web
(WWW).
• The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is the main protocol used in electronic mail
(e-mail) service.
• The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is used for transferring files from one host to another.
• The Terminal Network (TELNET) and Secure Shell (SSH) are used for accessing a site
remotely.
• The Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is used by an administrator to manage
the Internet at global and local levels.
 Encapsulation and Decapsulation
One of the important concepts in protocol layering in the Internet is
encapsulation/decapsulation.

Decapsulation
and
Encapsulation at
Encapsulation at the Source Host the Router Decapsulation at the Destination Host
 Addressing
• Any communication that involves two parties needs two addresses: source address and destination
address.
• Although it looks as if we need five pairs of addresses, one pair per layer, we normally have only four
because the physical layer does not need addresses; the unit of data exchange at the physical layer is a
bit, which definitely cannot have an address.
• At the application layer, we normally use names such as someorg.com, or [email protected].
• At the transport layer, addresses are called port numbers, and these define the application-layer
programs at the source and destination.
• At the network-layer, IP address - the addresses are global, with the whole Internet as the scope.
• The data link-layer addresses, sometimes called MAC addresses, are locally defined addresses,
each of which defines a specific host or router in a network (LAN or WAN).
Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
• Since the TCP/IP protocol suite uses several protocols at some layers, we can say that we have
multiplexing at the source and demultiplexing at the destination.
• Multiplexing in this case means that a protocol at a layer can encapsulate a packet from several
next-higher layer protocols (one at a time)
• Demultiplexing means that a protocol can decapsulate and deliver a packet to several
next-higher layer protocols (one at a time).
• To be able to multiplex and demultiplex, a protocol needs to have a field in its header to
identify to which protocol the encapsulated packets belong.
• At the transport layer, either UDP or TCP can accept a message from several application-layer
protocols. At the network layer, IP can accept a segment from TCP or a user datagram from UDP.
IP can also accept a packet from other protocols such as ICMP, IGMP, and so on.
• At the data-link layer, a frame may carry the payload coming from IP or other protocols such as
ARP
The OSI Model

• When speaking of the Internet, everyone talks about the TCP/IP

protocol suite, this suite is not the only suite of protocols defined.
• Established in 1947, the International Standards Organization (ISO) is
a multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement on
international standards.
• An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network communications is
the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model.
• It was first introduced in the late 1970s.
Seven Layers of the OSI Model

A
P
S
T
N
D
 OSI versus TCP/IP
• When we compare the two models, we find that two layers, session and presentation, are missing
from the TCP/IP protocol suite.
• These two layers were not added to the TCP/IP protocol suite after the publication of the OSI
model.
• The application layer in the suite is usually considered to be the combination of three layers in the
OSI model
• Two reasons for not adding session and presentation layers
• First, TCP/IP has more than one
transport-layer protocol. Some of
the functionalities of the session
layer are available in some of the
transport-layer protocols.
• Second, the application layer is
not only one piece of software.
Many applications can be
developed at this layer. If some
of the functionalities mentioned
in the session and presentation
layers are needed for a particular
application, they can be included
in the development of that piece
of software.
Lack of OSI Model’s Success

• OSI was completed when TCP/IP was fully in place and a lot of time and
money had been spent on the suite; changing it would cost a lot.
• Some layers in the OSI model were never fully defined. For example,
although the services provided by the presentation and the session layers
were listed in the document, actual protocols for these two layers were not
fully defined, nor were they fully described, and the corresponding
software was not fully developed.
• When OSI was implemented by an organization in a different application,
it did not show a high enough level of performance to entice the Internet
authority to switch from the TCP/IP protocol suite to the OSI model
 Key Terms
• Protocol Layers
• Advantages of Protocol Layers
• Principles of Protocol Layers
• Logical Connection
• TCP/IP Protocol Suite
• Layered Architecture
• Physical Layer
• Data Link Layer
• Network Layer
• Transport Layer
• Application Layer
• Encapsulation and Decapsulatioon
• Addressing
• Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
• The OSI Model
• Seven Layers of OSI Model
• OSI verses TCP/IP
• Lake of OSI Model
 Class Assignment: C03
1. What are the protocol and protocol layering?
2. State the advantages of protocol layering.
3. State the principles of protocol layering.
4. Sketch and explain the TCP/IP protocol payers.
5. Sketch only the layered architecture.
6. What are through by physical layers?
7. Functions of data link layer (Terms used in this layer)
8. Functions of Network layer (Terms used in this layer)
9. Functions of Transport layer (Terms used in this layer)
10. Functions of Application layer (Terms used in this layer)
11. Explain encapsulation and decapsulation.
12. What are addressing? How many fairs of addressing are used?
13. Name the addressing in each layer.
14. Explain multiplexing and demultiplexing.
15. What are ISO, OSI? Mention the layers of OSI.
16. OSI versus TCP/IP.

Due Date: Next Class 24.02.2025

Thanks