MODULE IN ED 105

Asst. Prof. Leolanda A. Balilla

Chapter 1
UNDERSTANDING LEARNING

Section Intended Learning Outcome (SILO)

Demonstrate understanding of learner-centered theories of learning and the types of

learning.

There are three chapters related to the study and understanding of learning. Supportive to
these are the learning outcomes along the following topics.
a. Analysis of learner-centered theories of learning
b. Comparison of child, adolescent, and adult learning
c. Categorizing knowledge according to type: declarative, procedural, and functional
knowledge

Lesson 1 – Learner-Centered Theories of Learning

Introduction
When we hear the word, “learning,” the first thing that comes to our mind is studying
subjects or courses like mathematics, science, and languages in school. In a broader sense
though, learning extends much more beyond the confines of the classroom or the school. People
learn everyday of their lives in various places and conditions.
The term “learning” and all other concepts related to it, expectedly form a major part of
the experiences for you who are studying to become teachers. As such, it is important for you to
understand the nature of learning, because you play a major role in the students’ learning.
Knowing and understanding learning-related concepts will enable you to better develop teaching
methodologies and other interventions meant to improve enhance, and facilitate learning.
The goal of education is to effect learning among students and the population at large.
Learning connotes observed changes in a person as a result of environmental events and
interventions. The process of education is a deliberate effort to ensure that as students go up the
educational ladder, developmental changes in their personality are effected. This has to do with
improved and enhanced physical, emotional, social and cognitive skills, and knowledge and other
personality behaviors.

Intended Learning Outcome (ILO)

Analyze learner-centered theories of learning.

ENGAGE
LEARNING POINT: THE NATURE OF LEARNING
For a start, learning is generally defined as any change in the behavior of the learner. The
change can be deliberate or unintentional, for better or for worse, correct or incorrect and
conscious or unconscious (Mayer, 2011; and Schunk, 2012 in Woolfolk, 2013). To qualify for
learning, the change should be brought about by experience or by interaction of the person with
the environment. It is not learning if the change is brought by maturation like getting taller or
hair turning gray. Temporary changes due to illness, fatigue, or hunger are not also included as
examples of learning.
While the definition may generally connote change either in the direction of the positive
or negative, it should be borne in mind that for our purposes in education, it means a conscious
and deliberate effort to effect behavioural changes among learners in the positive direction.
Thus, we should be thinking about improving and enhancing learners’ knowledge, abilities, skills
and values, quantitatively and qualitatively speaking. Toward this end, we should look to the
goals and objectives of education as our guide to successfully effect the desired learning
outcomes.
Learning is a process that brings together personal and environmental experiences and
influences for acquiring, enriching or modifying one’s knowledge, skills, values, attitudes,
behavior and world views (“Education,” n. d.).
Burns (1995) defined learning as a relatively permanent change in behavior with
behaviour including both observable activity and internal processes such as thinking attitudes,
and emotions.
Santrock (2012) defined learning as a relatively permanent influence on behavior,
knowledge, and thinking skills that comes about through experience. Santrock goes further to
say that it is a long-term change in mental representations or associations as a result of
experience. For example, as a result of experience, children will change from being unable to
operate a computer into individuals who can. However, not everything that an individual knows
or is able to do is the result of experience. There are some things an individual can do due to
inherited capacities. An example of this is swallowing or blinking of the eyes. If, however, an
individual develops new methods of study works harder to solve problems, asks better questions,
then these are learning as a result of experience.
The definition of learning covers the following elements:
a. It is a long-term change (though it does not necessarily last forever).
b. The change is brought about by experience.
c. It does not include changes that are physiological like maturation, mental illness, fatigue,
hunger or the like.
d. It involves mental representation or association, presumably, it has its basis in the brain.
 Woolfolk (2016) asserts that “learning occurs when experience (including practice) causes
a relatively permanent change in an individual’s knowledge, behavior or potential for
behavior.” For Ormrod (2015), “learning is a long-term change in mental representations or
associations as a result of experience.”
Learning is also defined as “any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a
result of practice and experience.” From the definitions, learning has three important
elements: a) a change in behavior, better or worse; b) change takes place through practice or
experience, (not changes due to growth or maturation); and, c) behavior change must be
relatively permanent and last for a fairly long time. All learning involve activities, whether
physical or mental. Activities learned by the individual refer to types of learning, as for
example, habits, skills, facts (“Learning: Meaning, Nature, Types and Theories of Learning” n.
d.).

Types of Learning
There are types of learning resulting from engagement or participation in classroom
activities. These types of learning are basics ingredients to success in school. These are what
schools desire of students to develop.
a. Motor Learning. It is a form of learning for one
to maintain and go through daily life activities as
for example, walking, running, driving, climbing,
and the like. These activities involve motor
coordination.
b. Verbal Learning. It involves the use of spoken
language as well as the communication device
used. Signs, pictures, symbols, words, figures, sounds are tools used in such activities.
c. Concept Learning. A form of learning which
requires the use of higher-order mental
processes like thinking, reasoning, and
analysing. It involves two processes: abstraction
and generalization.
d. Discrimination Learning. It is learning to
differentiate between stimuli and responding
appropriately to these stimuli. An example is
being able to distinguish the sound of horns of
different vehicles like bus, car, and ambulance.
e. Learning of Principles. It is learning principles related to science, mathematics, grammar
and the like. Principles show the relationship between two or more concepts, some
examples of which are formulas, laws, associations, correlations, and the like.
 f. Problem Solving. This is a higher-order thinking
process. This learning requires the use of cognitive
abilities – such as thinking, reasoning, observation,
imagination, and generalization.
g. Attitude Learning. Attitude is a predisposition which
determines and predicts behavior. Learned attitudes
influence one’s behavior toward people, objects,
things, or ideas (“Learning: Meaning, Nature, Types
and Theories of Learning.” n. d.).
LEARNING POINT: NATURE OF THEORIES OF LEARNING
The nature of learning or the changes occurring within an individual is difficult to visualize
and understand because it is an internal process. Hence it is not easy to present, or explain in
concrete terms what this complex process is all about. Thus, there is a need to look at theories
of learning to enable one to better conceptualize and operationalize what learning is all about.
Learning is a very comprehensive and complex concept, and it covers a wide range of
activities which cannot be explained with a limited framework. This may be the reason why there
is available wide range of theories of learning, each propounding and focusing on a particular
perspective or view to explain what learning is.
A learning theory is an organized set of principles explaining how individuals acquire,
retain, and recall knowledge. Learning theories try to explain how people learn and why they
learn. They also try to explain the phenomenon of learning – its nature, and conditions under
which learning best occurs. The explanations are, however, considered as tentative. Be as it may,
these statements are not the result of guesswork. Instead, they are well studied or seriously
thought out, and in many cases, the result of scientific study. These theories especially guide
teachers to have a better understanding of how learning occurs and how learners learn
(“Educational Learning and Learning Theories,” n. d.).
The term “learning” may mean differently to different people and used differently by
different theorist. As theories of learning evolved over time, definitions of learning shifted from
changes that occur in the mind or behavior of an individual, to changes in participation in ongoing
activities with other individuals, to changes in a person’s identity within group. (“Theories of
Learning” n. d.)

LEARNING POINT: DEFINING “LEARNER-CENTERED”

Lately, there has been a strong advocacy and push for learner-centeredness in
educational practice, especially in curriculum development and teaching methodology. This
means that policy, planning, and implementation of educational practice should have the learner
as its focus. It is therefore expected that theories of learning and their applications should be
learner-centered.
Learner-centered is the perspective that focuses on individual learners – their heredity,
experiences, perspectives, backgrounds, talents, interests, capacities, and needs, with a focus on
learning – the best available knowledge about learning and how it occurs, and about teaching
practices that are most effective in promoting the highest levels of motivation, learning and
achievement for all learners.
For a better understanding of the term learner-centered, following are learner-centered
principles, meant to provide a framework for developing and incorporating new strategies and
designs of teachings,
These are the main ideas of these principles:
a. They pertain to the learner and the learning process.
b. They focus on psychological factors primarily internal and under the control of the
learner.
c. They deal with external and contextual factors that interact with the internal factors.
d. They are seen as an organized set of principles; no principle to be viewed in isolation.
e. The principles are classified under cognitive, metacognitive, motivational, affective,
developmental, social, and individual difference factors related to learning.
f. These principles apply not only to all learners but to everybody involved in the
educational system, as for example, teachers, administrations, parents, staff, and
guidance counsellors.
Listed below are the learner-centered psychological principles which provide the bases for
understanding better the learner, and what learning is and should be (Workgroup of the
American Psychological Association Board of Educational Affairs, 1997 cited in Santrock, 2011).
Learner-centered does not only refer to learner-characteristics, but also to the beliefs,
dispositions, and practices that are created by teachers. To digress a little, principles are
statements that depict a general truth which have been established through careful study.

Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors

1. Nature of the Learning Process. Learning of complex subject matter is most effective
when it is an intentional process of constructing meaning from information and
experience.
2. Goals of the Learning Process. The successful learner, over time, with support and
guidance can create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.
3. Construction of Knowledge. The learner can relate new information in meaningful ways.
4. Strategic Thinking. The learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning
strategies to achieve complex goals.
 5. Thinking About Thinking. Higher-order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental
operations facilitate creative and critical thinking.
6. Context of Learning. Learning is influenced by environmental factors including culture,
technology, and instructional practices.

Motivational and Affective Factors

7. Motivational and Emotional Influences in Learning. What and how much is learned is
influenced by the learner’s level of motivation. Motivation to learn is in turn influenced
by the learner’s emotional states, beliefs, interests, goals and habits of thinking.
8. Intrinsic Motivation to Learn. Learning is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and
difficulty, relevant to personal interests, and providing for personal choice and control.
9. Effects of Motivation on Effort. Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires
extended learner effort and guided practice. Without this motivation, willingness to exert
effort is unlikely, unless coerced.
Developmental and Social Factors
10. Developmental Influences on Learning. As individuals develop, they encounter, different
opportunities and experiences, as well as constraints for learning. Learning is most
effective when differential within and across physical, intellectual, emotional and social
domains is taken into account.
11. Socials Influences on Learning. Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal
relations, and communication with others.
Individual Differences Factors
12. Individual Differences in Learning. Learners have different strategies, approaches and
capabilities for learning that are a function of prior experience and heredity.
13. Learning and Diversity. Learning is most effective when differences in learners’ linguistic,
social, and cultural backgrounds are taken into account.
14. Standards and Assessment. Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and
assessing the learner and learning progress – including diagnostic and outcome
assessment are integral parts of the learning process.
The above context describes the different conditions under which learning best occurs. It
therefore behoves educational practitioners, especially teachers to be creative, flexible and
innovative in their approaches and methodologies, not only in teaching, but in dealing with
their students.
Santrock (2011) identifies some learner-centered instructional strategies which address
learners’ needs. They are:
 1. Problem-Based Learning
This strategy emphasizes real-life problem-solving. It exposes learners to authentic life
problems that they meet in their daily lives. This approach involves small-group efforts to
identify problems and issues they wish to tackle and explore, then identify materials and
resources to solve the problem. The teacher guides and monitors the learners’ problem
solving efforts.
2. Essential Questions
Essential questions are asked of learners, which perplex them. This is followed by other
questions, which motivate the students to explore the questions and look for answers. The
questions cause the students to think, and provoke their curiosity. These questions are
creative. A “dull” question, like “What is the effect of the People Power Revolution in our
political and economic life?” can be translated into a more thought-provoking one like, “Is
the People Power Revolution still going on?”
3. Discovery Learning
This approach is in contrast to direct-instruction approach. Teachers create the situation
where students explore and figure out things for themselves. The guided discovery
learning evolved from discovery learning, where students still construct their own
understanding but with the guidance of the teacher.

LEARNING POINT: THEORIES OF LEARNING

Earlier on, the nature of theories of learning has been discussed. It must be noted that
there are many theories of learning as a result of continuous study and research, in search for
the truth. It is the dynamic nature of theories that enable us to understand better a complex
phenomenon, as learning.

Behaviorism
Behaviorism is a world view that assumes the learner is essentially passive, responding to
environmental stimuli. This perspective emerged in the early 1900s through the research efforts
of Ivan Pavlov and Edward Thorndike who made more objective studies about learning as
opposed to the studies on learning which relied heavily on introspection.
The learner starts off with a clean slate (i.e., tabula rasa) and behavior is learned or shaped
through positive reinforcement. Both of these increase the probability that the antecedent
behavior will be repeated or will happen again. Behaviorism advances the idea that when a cue
or stimulus in the environment is presented, the individual makes a particular response to that
stimulus. Behaviorism contends that new behaviors or changes in behaviors are acquired by
associating stimuli and responses. Thus association leads to changes in behavior. Behaviorism is
a world view that operates on the principle of “stimulus-response” (S-R). All behavior can be
explained without the need to consider the internal mental states or consciousness. Behaviorism
instruction, however, does not prepare the learners for problem-solving which currently is the
skill being developed among learners for survival. This is because behaviorism looks at the learner
as a passive learner. Learning is promoted by environmental factors like reinforcement, feedback,
practice or repetition (“Behaviorism,” n. d.).
Following are the basic assumptions of behaviorism, which many behaviorists share
(Ormrod, 2015)
a. Principles of learning should apply equally to different behaviors and to a variety of animal
species. This is on the assumption that humans and other animals learn in similar ways.
Thus behaviorists-researchers apply to humans what they have derived from the studies
of animals.
b. Learning processes can be studied most objectively when the focus of study is on the
stimuli and responses. It is argued that stimuli and responses are observable and
measurable which contribute to objectivity of studying learning.
c. Internal processes tent to be excluded or minimized in theoretical explanations. This
thinking stemmed from the argument that these internal behaviors cannot be directly
observed. Recently, however,, there has emerged a thinking propounded by neo-
behaviorists that learning is better understood if cognitive processes, be included as a
factor, that explains learning.
d. Learning involves a behavior change.
e. Organisms are born as blank slates.
f. Learning is largely the result of environmental events.
g. The most useful theories tend to be parsimonious (or concise).
The areas of application of theories under behaviorism are listed below: (Ormrod, 2015
and Kelly, September, 2012).
a. Drill/Rote work
b. Repetitive practice
c. Giving bonus points
d. Giving participation points
e. Verbal reinforcement
f. Establishing rules
g. Giving of Rewards
h. Applying punishment
i. Giving feedback
j. Positive reinforcement
k. Token reinforcers
l. Negative reinforcement
Cognitivism or Cognitive Constructivism
The cognitive revolution in the late 1950s to 1960s replaced behaviorism as the dominant
paradigm for learning. The human mind is seen as a “black box” and it is necessary to open it for
a better understanding of how people learn. Mental processes such as memory, knowing,
problem-solving, reasoning and other such processes need to be explored. People are seen not
as programmed beings that simply respond to environmental stimuli, as is propounded in
behaviorism. Cognitivism requires active participation in order to learn and actions are seen as a
result of thinking. Knowledge can be seen as schema or symbolic mental constructions, thus
learning is defined as change in a learner’s schemata. Changes in behavior are observed but this
only indicates what is going on in the learner’s head. The learner’s mind is compared to a
computer which does a lot of processing of the data fed into it. Thus individuals are thought of
as active learners, actively engaged in their learning; and actively seeking ways to understand
and process information that they receive and relate this to what is already known and stored
within memory. Learning is thought of as an internal process rather than simply dealing with or
responding to external stimuli. Learning involves the reorganization of experiences, either by
attaining new insights or not just a change in behavior (Kelly, September 2012).
Examples and applications of the cognitive learning theory (Kelly, September 2012).
a. Classifying or chunking information
b. Linking concepts (associate new content with something known)
c. Providing structure (organizing lectures in efficient and meaningful ways)
d. Real world examples
e. Discussions
f. Problem-solving
g. Analogies
h. Imagery/providing pictures
i. Mnemonics

Social Constructivism
As a worldview or paradigm that emerged in the 1970s and 1980s, it posits that learning
is an active constructive process. The learner himself constructs knowledge. People actively
construct or create their own representation of objective reality. New information is linked to
prior knowledge, thus mental representations are subjective. Learning is seen as an active
contextualized process of constructing knowledge instead of simply acquiring it. Knowledge is
based on the learners’ personal experiences and expectations of the environment and where
they continuously test these expectations through social negotiations. Each person may have a
different interpretation and construction of the knowledge process.
The person is not a blank slate but brings social and cultural factors to a situation. It assumes that
all knowledge is constructed from the leaner’s previous knowledge regardless of how one was
new knowledge and not just absorbing what is being said in the lecture. Each person generates
knowledge based on his previous experiences or knowledge. Thus, the individual develops his
own mental models to make sense of his experiences. Thus, learning is adjusting to one’s mental
models to accommodate new experiences.
The theory is about preparing the individual to solve problems. Thus, the individual needs
to have a wide and significant base of knowledge upon which to create and interpret ideas. It
may be said that results may not be the same because learners create their own ideas and thus,
may be unique to the individual persons. So constructivism does not work when results are
expectedly fixed or consistent.
Following are some applications of social constructivism (Kelly, September 2012).
a. Case Studies
b. Research Projects
c. Problem Solving
d. Brainstorming
e. Collaborative Learning/Group Work
f. Discovery Learning
g. Simulations
The applications of social constructivism show that class activities which require the
participation and contributions of many learners in a task enables learning to occur.
The table below presents some salient points about the above-mentioned theories of
learning considered as basic to the further study of learning.

Behaviorism Cognitive Constructivism Social

Constructivism
View of Knowledge is a Knowledge systems of Knowledge is
Knowledge repertoire of cognitive structures are constructed within
behavioural actively constructed by social contexts
responses to learners based on cognitive through interactions
environmental structures. with a knowledge
stimuli. community.
 View of Passive absorption Active assimilation and Integration of
Learning of predefined body accommodation of new students into a
of knowledge by the information to existing knowledge
learner. Promoted cognitive structures. community.
by repetition and Discovery by leaners Collaborative
positive assimilation and
reinforcement. accommodation of
new information.
View of Extrinsic, involving Intrinsic, learners set their Intrinsic and
Motivation positive and own goals and motivate extrinsic. Learning
negative themselves to learn. goals and motives
reinforcement. are determined both
by learners and
extrinsic rewards
provided by the
knowledge
community.
Implications Correct behavioural Teacher facilitates learning by Collaborative
for Teaching responses are providing an environment learning is facilitated
transmitted by that promotes discovery and and guided by the
teachers and assimilation/accommodation. teacher. Group
absorbed by work.
students.

Thus far, the theories of learning presented above are considered as forerunners of the
study of learning theories. Each theory projects its own points and tries to relate specific factors
along a particular perspective to learning. It would be good, however, to look at the other
theories of learning the consequently evolved following the basic theories (“Strengthening
Education,” n. d.).
1. Social Learning Theory
This theory was espoused by Albert Bandura who works with both cognitive and behaviorist
frameworks that embrace attention, memory, and motivation. This theory suggests that people
learn within a social context and that learning is facilitated through concepts like modelling,
observational learning, and imitation. Bandura put forward “reciprocal determinism” that holds
the view that a person’s behavior, environment and personal qualities all reciprocally influence
each other. He argues that children learn from observing others as well as from model behavior,
which are processes involving attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation. The
importance of positive role modeling on learning is well-established.
Implications of Social Learning on the Practice of Education
a. Students often learn a great deal simply by observing people.
 b. Describing consequences of behavior can effectively increase appropriate behaviors and
decrease inappropriate ones.
c. Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching new behaviors. It can provide a
faster, more efficient means of teaching new behavior.
d. Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors and take care not to model
inappropriate behaviors.
e. Teachers should expose students to a variety of other models to break down traditional
stereotypes.

2. Socio-constructivism
In the late 20th century, the constructivist view of learning was further changed by the
perspective of “situated cognition and learning.” It emphasized the significant role of context
particularly social interaction in learning. Criticism against the information-processing between
constructivist approach to cognition and learning became stronger as pioneer work of Leo
Vygotsky as well as anthropological and ethnographic research by scholars like Barbara Rogoff
and Jean Lave came to the to the fore and gathered support. The essence of criticism was that
the information-processing constructivism saw cognition and learning as processes occurring
within the mind in isolation from the surroundings and interactions with it. Knowledge was
considered as self-sufficient and independent of the contexts in which it finds itself. In the new
view, cognition and learning are understood as interactions between the individual and a
situation; knowledge is considered as situated and is a product of the activity, context, and
culture in which it is formed and utilized. This gave way to the new metaphor, for learning as
“participation and social negotiation.”
Implications of Socio-Constructivism on the Practice of Education
a. Teachers should create opportunities for students to engage in group work or cooperative
learning.
b. In group or cooperative work, teachers should make sure that each learner is able to make
his contribution to accomplish the task.
c. The topics or subject matter should contain local instructional materials which are familiar
to the learners. This is for more meaningful learning.
d. Local resources should be used as jump-off point for group discussions, and problem
solving tasks.

3. Experiential Learning
Experiential learning theories build on social and constructivist theories of learning but
situate experience at the core of the learning process. They aim to understand the manner in
which experiences, whether first- or secondhand motivate learners and promote their learning.
Therefore, learning is about meaningful experiences in everyday life-that lead to a change in
individual’s knowledge and behaviors. Carl Rogers is an influential proponent of these theories
suggesting that experiential learning is “self-initiated” learning as people have a natural
inclination to learn; and they learn if they are fully involved in the learning process.
Rogers put forward the following insights: a) learning can only be facilitated; we cannot teach
another person directly; b) learners become more rigid under threat; c) significant learning occurs
in an environment where threat to the learner is reduced to a minimum; d) learning is most likely
to occur and to last if it is self-initiated. He supports a dynamic continuous process or change
where new learning results in and affects learning environments.
Implications of Experiential Learning to the Practice of Education
a. Teachers should be keen and sensitive to the history and experiences of the learners,
which could serve as inputs for related lessons. In so doing, students would feel that they
are involved in the learning process, because it is their own experiences which they are
studying.
b. Teachers should make sure that they have a feel of the experiences of the students, so
that they are better able to create an atmosphere for students that is relaxed.
c. Teachers should apply strategies meant to facilitate and guide students’ learning, so that
they do not have always be the source of learning materials.

4. Multiple Intelligences (MI)

This theory challenges the assumption in many learning theories that learning is a universal
human process that all individuals experience according to the same principles. Howard
Gardner’s theory of intelligence challenges the understanding that intelligence is dominated by
a single general ability. He argues that intelligence actually consists of many distinct intelligences:
logico-mathematical, linguistic, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal and
intrapersonal ability, and naturalistic ability. This theory is speculative but appreciated by
teachers in broadening their framework of developing skills, curriculum and testing. The MI
theory “requires” the teachers to come up with a variety of instructional materials and strategies,
to make sure that the needs of students with specific intelligences or abilities are addressed.

5. Situated Learning Theory and Community of Practice

They draw from many of the learning ideas earlier presented. These concepts were developed
by Jean Lave and Ettiene Wenger. Situated learning recognizes that there is no learning that is
not situated. It emphasizes the relational and negotiated character of knowledge and learning as
well as the engaged nature of learning activity for the individuals involved. The theory further
asserts that it is within communities that learning occurs must effectively. Interactions taking
place within a community of practice, i.e. cooperation, problem solving, building trust,
understanding and relations have the potential to foster community social capital that enhances
the community members’ well-being. Sergiovanni reinforces the idea that learning is most
effective when it takes place in communities.
Communities of practice is not confined only to schools but to cover other settings like
workplaces and organizations. It seeks to understand both the structure of communities and how
learning occurs in them (“Education,” n.d.).
According to McCarthy (1981, 1987) the concept of communities of practice is based on the
following assumptions:
a. Learning is fundamentally a social phenomenon. People organize their learning around
social communities to which they belong. Therefore, schools are powerful learning
environments for students whose social communities coincide with the school.
b. Knowledge is integrated in the life of communities that share values, beliefs, language and
ways of doing things. These are called communities of practice. Real knowledge is
integrated in the doing, social relations, and expertise of these communities.
c. The processes of learning and membership in a community of practice are inseparable.
Because learning is intertwined with community membership, it is what lets us belong to
adjust our status in the group.
d. Knowledge is inseparable from practice. It is impossible to know without doing. By doing,
we learn.
e. Empowerment or the ability to contribute to a community creates the potential for
learning. This is because individuals learn from the experiences of others.

6. 21st Century Learning Skills

The study or exploration of the 21st century learning or skills emerged from the concerns
about transforming the goals and daily practice of learning to meet the new demands of the 21st
century characterized as knowledge and technology-driven. These are skills necessary for
students to master for them to experience school and life success in an increasingly digital and
connected age. Current discussions about 21st century skills lead classrooms and other
environments to encourage the development of core subject knowledge as well as media literacy,
critical and systems thinking. Group learning and use of thematic projects involving inquiry-based
collaborative work that addresses world issues support the learning of the 21st Century Skills.
(Source: http://unesco.org/new/en)
EXPLORE
Activity
Go to the library and consult any book on educational psychology or theories of learning.
Read at least two theories of learning and identify their proponents. Outline the highlights of
each theory using the table below.

Description/Definition View of Knowledge View of Learning View of Motivation

APPLY
Name: ______________________________ Date: _______________
Following are learning activities and practices commonly applied inside the classroom.
Identify what theory is applied in each learning activity and why you think so.

Learning Activities and Practices Theory Applied

1. The teacher assigned the students to memorize the
multiplication table.
2. The trainer showed a ten-minute video about an effective
teacher to a group of teacher-trainees.
3. The teacher gave five algebra problems for students to
solve.
4. The teacher first gave a lecture on a topic on Philippine
history, after which he asked the students to answer recall
questions.
5. The teacher asked the students to memorize and recite
Jose Rizal’s “My Last Farewell.”
6. The teacher invited one resource person to give a lecture
on developing habits of cleanliness and hygiene. After the
lecture, the students were encouraged to ask questions to
the resource speaker.
7. In a science class, the teacher asked the students to do an
experiment and answer the questions based on the results of
the experiment.
8. The teacher gives a “star” to the pupil who gave correct
answers to her questions.
9. In a statistics class, the students were asked to interpret
the data illustrated in graphs.
10. The teacher asked the students to do interviews with
local officials. The purpose was to identify who among the
local officials are “good” and “effective” leaders based on a
set of criteria.
11. The teacher asked the students to observe a chef on the
correct way of cooking a recipe.
12. In a coconut-growing locality, many of the topics in the
course had to do with coconuts. In TLE, lessons are on
cooking using coconut recipes. In science, lessons are on how
to improve the by-product of coconuts.
13. On a lesson on environmental conservation, students
climbed a mountain to study the kinds of topographical
changes taking place.
14. In an English (literature) class, the topic was Joyce
Kilmer’s poem, “Trees.” The teacher asked two students to
write two paragraphs of their interpretation of the poem
from a science perspective. Two students were also asked to
interpret the poem in music form.
15. The topic under study is to study the use of computer
programs needed for different tasks in the workplace.
ASSESS
Name: _________________________ Date: _______________
A. Name two highlights of social constructivism.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

B. Describe two example of classroom activities that are in keeping with social learning
theory.
Example 1

Example 2

C. Name two important reasons why students should learn and develop 21st century skills.
______________________________________________________________________________
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D. Given all the theories presented and learned in this chapter, what gives them the
characteristics of being learner-centered?

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