Basic Logical Concepts: Sentence, Proposition & Argument

Manya Thareja

225025

B.A. Psychology - Philosophy

This essay examines the essential concepts of logic—sentence, proposition, and argument

—and their importance in reasoning and argumentation. Logic focuses on distinguishing between

sound and unsound reasoning through the evaluation of arguments. Declarative sentences

express propositions that can be true or false and form the foundation of arguments, which are

structured clusters of propositions with a conclusion supported by premises. The essay explains

different types of propositions - simple, conjunctive, disjunctive, and hypothetical and how to

evaluate arguments based on their validity and soundness. Mastering these concepts enhances

critical thinking skills and enables informed decision-making across various aspects of life.

Introduction

Logic is a field of study that focuses on the principles and methods of reasoning, offering

tools and frameworks to distinguish between sound and unsound reasoning. It evaluates

arguments by ensuring conclusions drawn from premises are valid and sound. Understanding

logic's foundational concepts—sentence, proposition, and argument—is vital for effective

reasoning and critical analysis of arguments. This essay explores these essential concepts and

discusses their significance in reasoning and argumentation, as outlined in the provided text.

The Study of Logic

Logic originates from the Greek term “logos”, which encompasses meanings such as

word, thought, speech, reason, and fire. Today, it refers to the study of thought processes,

reasoning, and argumentation. Its goal is to discern between correct and incorrect forms of
reasoning by applying objective criteria to evaluate arguments. Logic serves as the foundation

for critical thinking and effective communication.

In his work on model logic, Schipper highlights the importance of reasons in justifying

our beliefs: "Reasons are the coin we pay for the belief we hold." However, not all reasons are

equally valid. Good reasoning leads to sound arguments that often appear in written form, while

poor reasoning leads to weak arguments. Logic's objective is to establish the criteria for

distinguishing between good and bad arguments.

Sentence

A sentence is a linguistic expression that conveys a complete thought, idea, or assertion.

Sentences can serve various purposes: stating facts, asking questions, issuing commands, or

expressing exclamations. In logic, sentences are used to express propositions, the building blocks

of arguments.

 Declarative sentences express propositions and assert that something is the case. For

example, "The sky is blue" is a declarative sentence expressing the proposition that the

sky is blue.

 Interrogative sentences pose questions and do not assert propositions. For instance, "Is

the sky blue?" is an interrogative sentence that does not make a claim about the world.

 Imperative sentences issue commands and do not express propositions. For example,

"Close the door!" is an imperative sentence that instructs an action.

 Exclamatory sentences express emotions or exclamations and do not assert propositions.

For example, "Oh my gosh!" is an exclamatory sentence expressing surprise.

on declarative sentences, which are used to assert propositions.

Proposition

A proposition is a statement that asserts that something is the case or asserts that

something is not the case. Propositions can be either true or false, and they are central to logical

reasoning. For instance:

 True Proposition: "The Earth revolves around the Sun."

 False Proposition: "The Earth is flat."

Propositions are expressed using declarative sentences and are independent of the

language or sentence structure used. A single proposition can be expressed in multiple ways

depending on the language or arrangement of words. For instance, the proposition "Leslie won

the election" can also be expressed as "The election was won by Leslie."

Moreover, propositions can be simple, asserting a single fact, or compound, containing

multiple propositions within themselves. The compound propositions can be further classified

into different types:

 Conjunctive Propositions: These assert the truth of two or more propositions

simultaneously. For example, "The Amazon Basin produces roughly 20% of the

Earth's oxygen, creates much of its own rainfall, and harbors many unknown

species" asserts three propositions at once.

 Disjunctive Propositions: These assert that one of the propositions is true. For

example, "Either the cat is on the mat, or the dog is in the yard" asserts one of the

two propositions.
  Hypothetical Propositions: These are conditional statements asserting a

relationship between two propositions. For instance, "If it is raining, then the

ground will be wet" asserts a conditional relationship.

Understanding the types and structures of propositions is crucial in evaluating arguments

and their validity.

Argument

An argument is a structured cluster of propositions where one proposition, the

conclusion, is supported by other propositions, known as premises. A Conclusion is a

proposition that is affirmed based on the premises. Premises are the propositions that provide

support for the conclusion. Arguments vary in complexity and are the primary focus of logical

analysis.

For instance, consider the classic argument:

 Premise: "Socrates is a human."

 Conclusion: "Therefore, Socrates is mortal."

This argument is a straightforward example of deductive reasoning, where the premises

provide support for the conclusion, making it a valid and sound argument.

To understand and evaluate arguments effectively, it is essential to recognize the

distinction between arguments and other clusters of propositions. For example, Aristotle's

argument in “Politics” provides a clear example of reasoning:

 Premise: "A state aims to be a society composed of equals."

 Conclusion: "Therefore, a state based on the middle class is bound to be the best

constituted."
 This argument is concise and straightforward, presenting a clear conclusion based on a

single premise.

When evaluating arguments, logicians assess the form and quality of the argument. The

form of an argument refers to its logical structure, while the quality refers to the validity and

soundness of the argument. An argument is valid if the conclusion logically follows from the

premises. If the premises are true, the conclusion must be true. An argument is sound if it is valid

and all its premises are true.

For instance, consider the argument:

 Premise: "All dogs are mammals."

 Premise: "Buddy is a dog."

 Conclusion: "Therefore, Buddy is a mammal."

This argument is both valid and sound because the conclusion logically follows from the

premises, and the premises are true.

Conclusion

Understanding logic and its basic concepts—sentence, proposition, and argument—is

essential for reasoning effectively and distinguishing between sound and unsound arguments. By

mastering these concepts and practicing the analysis of arguments, individuals can enhance their

ability to think critically and make well-reasoned decisions in various aspects of life. The study

of logic not only hones critical thinking skills but also fosters effective communication and

informed decision-making across different contexts.

Copi, Irving M., Carl Cohen, and Kenneth McMahon. Introduction to Logic, 14th Edition.

Pearson, 2014.

Assadian, Bahram. Introduction to Philosophy: Logic. Rebus Foundation, 2021.